Definite concessive -NFNT1 INCLN The next example further illustrates the definite concession. Relevant markers are underlined:
18 .106 ŋin khaŋ se-na ak ɕʏli mit-ɖaŋ-ken bet
day one eat-NFNT1 INCLN at.all NEG-become.filled-NMLZ;CONJ AUX luk ma di=raŋ. TE30
sheep CONTR1 DEF=FOC ‘In fact even ifeven though a sheep eats whole day it does not become satisfied at
all.’ Or: ‘In spite of the fact that it eats grass the whole day it actually does not become satisfied.’
This is from a text that tells about sheep raising. When eating good grass some sheep never have enough even though they may eat all day. The contrastive CONTR1 particle in the end highlights the
main clause. Concessive subordinator -tɕaŋ
This concessive subordinator is used rarely. Consider the following two examples. 18.107 mi kurik-ki dikpa t
ɕhi-ni kurik-la dikpa jøk-ken man all-ERG sin do;VBZR-NFNT2 all-DAT sins EXIST-NMLZ;CONJ
t ɕhi-ni juu-kaŋ-tu mi ɕi-na kha-ni mit-tɕaŋ
do;VBZR-NFNT2 village-house-LOC man die-NFNT1 where-ABL NEG.EXIST-NFNT3 lama
ʈhik-ken bet. TE51 lama fetch-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘Because all men have committed sins, all men have sins, therefore if a man dies they fetch a lama wherever he is.’ Lit. ‘from wherever he would not be.’
This suffix -t ɕaŋ which marks the concessive relation in non-finite clauses combines only with
existential and equative copulas. The other concessive marker - na ak NFNT1 INCLN may combine with
all types of verbs. 18.108 ket di t
ɕikpa jøt-tɕaŋ iki di sound DEF same EXIST-NFNT3 written.form DEF’
raŋsa raŋsa ʈhi-ken bet. TE91 different different write-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘Though the sound is the same, we write them different.’ This refers to some words of the Devanagri orthography of Lhomi.
18.9.4 Subordinate substitutive clause
Lhomi has a particle boora which marks the substitutive relation like English words ‘instead’ and ‘rather’.
This same marker marks the substitutive relation also across sentences or higher syntactic units see section 18.12.
18.109 ni gomp- ʏ lempu-la tɕhe gotta-la ta pentok
gombu-ERG reply-DAT DETERM 3SG-DAT EMPHP one.paise.coin hek
ɕora tɕik ik mit-tsuk gotta-la tsuk-pa-le ta broken one INCLN NEG-plant 3SG-DAT plant-NMLZ;Q-COMP.BASIS EMPHP
boora maa-ni mal-la khokkaa khe-paa t ɕik-la
rather down.there-ABL down.there-DAT Nepali.man skill-COMP2 INDF-DAT bin-na pha
ɕɕa-la tøn toŋ-ken sik-ken bet. TE55 give-NFNT1 hatred-DAT show IMMED-NMLZ;CONJ say-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘Then Gompu replies, “I do not give him even a single broken one paise coin. I rather give my money to a smart Nepali of lowlands and show my anger.”’
This example is from a story which describes an endless land dispute between two men. Arbitrators are at work and this is the answer which one of the men gives to them. He threatens to take the matter
to court. The word used for a non-Lhomi man is derogatory.
18.9.5 Subordinate simultaneous clause
Simultaneous clause marked by -kin Subordinate simultaneous activity marker -
kin NMLZ indicates that two kinds of activities are going on at the same time or two ongoing state of affairs co-occur. It is the simultaneity which is important here.
In this construction the suffix attaches to nonpast root of the verb and marks a subordinate clause. Typically also the main clause verb which is modified by the subordinate clause is an activity verb, but
not always e.g. 18.117. The clause marked by the subordinator -kin is a nominalized adverbial clause which may have
almost any type of verb. The first example in the current section shows that this is not a serial verb construction, subjects are not co-referential. Neither is it complementation because it is not an argument
of the main verb. Only the main clause may be negated. The following examples illustrate this adverbial clause
simultaneous activity markers are underlined and I have added also the verb types for both subordinate and main verbs.
ambient-kin ST1 main verb
18.110 t ɕheppa dʑak-kin dʑak-kin
rain VBZR-NMLZ VBZR-NMLZ sempuŋ-nala juŋ-en. TE3
Sempung-ALL come-1PST ‘I came around Sempung while it was raining.’
T1-kin T1 main verb
18.111 ha na ha khoo-kin khoo-kin now RSPNS aud.impact hear;understand-NMLZ hear;understand-NMLZ
hi-ntuk t ɕhi-pa tɕhit mit-tshuu-pet tɕhi-pen. TE58
this-ADVZR do;VBZR-NMLZ;Q do;VBZR NEG-be.able-INCH say-1PST ‘I said, “While understanding it now, I am not able to do it anymore.”’
T1-kin T1 main verb
18.112 mi- i thoŋ-kin thoŋ-kin
man-ERG see-NMLZ see-NMLZ k
ʏnnak ku s-ʏ ʏt mit-tshuu-ken bet. TE63 theft steal who-ERG INCLN NEG-be.able-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘While someone sees it, no one is able to steal.’
This statement is general knowledge everywhere. T1-kin
ST1 main verb 18
.113 laŋkak-la tsa sa-kin mit-døk-ken bet. TE32 trail-DAT grass eat-NMLZ NEG-stay-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘It yak does not stop for eating on trail.’ The implication is that when yak moves along, it does not stop even for eating on trail like sheep
do. ST1-kin
ST1 main verb 18
.114 ŋa ki-la dʑii-kin dʑii-kin phim-pen. 1SG dog-DAT be.afraid-NMLZ be.afraid-NMLZ go.come[PST]-1PST
‘I went and came back being all the time afraid of the dog.’ ST1-kin
T1 main verb 18
.115 thaŋpuu tha-ni sø-na juŋ-kin juŋ-kin beginning end-ABL placate-NFNT1 come-NMLZ come-NMLZ
khit khajet ha khan ʈa-la mit-so-ken? TE46
2PL plural now what-DAT NEG-placate-NMLZ;CONJ.Q ‘From the very beginning we have been placating Pupu, why do you not placate
now?’ Lit. ‘From the very beginning we have lived placating all the time Pupu…’
There is some overlay of cause in this subordinate -kin clause. Subordinate simultaneous clause marked by -kil-la
This illustration further strengthens the analysis that -kin nominalizes the subordinate adverbial clause which is not a complement but rather modifies the main clause. The only difference between this one
and examples 18.117–121 is that the adverbial clause is perhaps less topicalized in this one.
18.116 ni t ɕiki tɕik-pu sim-la hi-ki tam hi-ki ʈhik-la
only alone-M1 mind-DAT this-GEN word this-GEN about-DAT noksam
toŋ-kil-la phim-pen. TE58 reasoning send;VBZR-NMLZ-DAT go.come[PST]-1PST
‘I walked alone and was thinking about it while going.’ Or: ‘While I was thinking about it I walked alone.’
Something has happened in the village and the speaker reasons alone, trying to find a solution while he walks. Two activities are going on at the same time, one is physical and the other is mental. This is
purely simultaneous activity without any causal overlay. Subordinate simultaneous clause with an existential copular verb as main verb
The reading of this adverbial clause construction is actually continuative or continuous aspect. The subordinate clause expresses an ongoing activity. The activity is being carried out but it also ends though
the end point is not overtly specified. Often progressive and continuative aspects are combined see Givón 2001:289. In Lhomi continuative and progressive aspects differ in that the former one has
boundedness but the latter one does not. See section 13.10.2 about progressive aspect which is also treated under evidentiality in section 14.1.2.
This continuative aspect in Lhomi combines only with agentive verbs. Typically the meaning in English is: ‘they are in the state of eating’, ‘they are eating’, ‘we are eating’.
Nonpast root of the activity verb is marked with simultaneous activity marker - kin NMLZ and the
existential main verb jøt or duk with appropriate finite affixation. The existential is the main verb. The subordinate clause is nominalized. The following formula illustrates this grammatical construction:
Vnonpast root - kin EXIST
Existential copulas are explained more thoroughly in chapter 14 on evidentials. Consider the following examples aspect markers are underlined.
T1 verb 18
.117 ŋis-so tuwa sa-kin jøt. 1PL.EXCL-PL1 porridge eat-NMLZ EXIST.EXP
‘We are eating right now.’ Eating is still going on at the time of the speech act. Someone may have called from outside and this
is the response from inside. 18.118 roo-so phaa-na
arak thuŋ-kin jøk-ken bet. 3SG-PL1 over.there-IN liquor drink-NMLZ EXIST-NMLZ;CONJ AUX
‘They are out there drinking liquor.’ Speaker knows it and communicates this as a fact. This is assumption based on general knowledge.
18 .119 thaŋmu tɕhi-na tɕhø-kaŋ di so-kin duk. TE76
thangmu t ɕhi-IN religion-house DEF build-NMLZ EXIST.VIS
‘They are building the religious house in thangmu tɕhi.’
This is from a letter addressed to me. Writer has seen the activity on the spot and knows that it is going to go on for a while. This is an ongoing activity at the time of writing the letter. The activity goes
on every day but is not habitual. It ends at a later time. The sensory observation of the writer entails that he passes potentially new information but not totally unexpected to the recipient of the letter. He has
seen it but the recipient hasn’t.
18.120 phu t ɕuŋ-ɕo saamuel di halo-ni
son young-SUP Samuel DEF this.year-ABL kilas t
ɕu-la ɖok-kin jøt. TE78 class ten-DAT read-NMLZ EXIST.EXP
‘Youngest son Samuel from this year onwards is studying in the tenth class.’ Father is telling that his youngest son is studying for the final exam. This is an ongoing activity
which also ends later. The existential is marked for direct experience because the writer is the father of the referent.
ST1 verb 18
.121 ŋa ʈaksi-la juŋ-kin jøt. speaker phoning from a taxi 1SG taxi-DAT come-NMLZ EXIST.EXP
‘I am coming to you in a taxi.’ Or: ‘I am in a taxi on my way to your place.’
18.9.6 Subordinate durative activity marked by reduplicated verb root
