Translation Process Notions of Translation

Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000 are experts who first introduce the term technical procedures in the translation method. They propose seven basic procedures which are included to the direct translation or literal and indirect or oblique translation. Based on them, the seven basic procedures are operating on three levels of styles: lexis, distribution morphology and syntax and message. Literal translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even morphological equivalence between two languages. According to the authors, this is only possible when the two languages are very close to each other. Direct translation covers borrowing, calque, and literal translation. Whereas Oblique translation occurs when word for word translation is impossible. Oblique translation covers transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. Each can be specified as follows. 1 Borrowing Borrowing is a word taken directly from another language, e.g., the English word bulldozer has been incorporated directly into other language. Based on Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000, sometimes a translator may use borrowing to introduce the flavour of the source language SL culture into a translation. They also add that borrowing is used as it has become a part of the respective lexicon. For example SL: computer TL: komputer. 2 Calque Calque is a foreign word or phrase translated and incorporated into another language, e.g., fin de semaine from the English weekend. According to Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutrti, 2000 calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows translation forms of another, but the translator translates literally each of its elements. The result is either a lexical calque, a calque which respects the syntactic structure of the target language. For example SL: software TL: perangkat lunak. 3 Literal Translation Literal translation or it is commonly known as word-for-word translation. According to Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000, it is a direct transfer of the source language text into a grammatically and idiomatically app ropriate target language text in which the translators’ task is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL. In this procedure the individual words and the word order of the ST are kept only when it is possible. For example SL: I would tell a story TL: Saya akan memberitahu sebuah cerita. 4 Transposition According to Vinay and Darbelnet in Molina, 2002, transposition is a shift of word class or a shift between grammatical categories. It can be verb for noun, noun for preposition, e.g., Expéditeur and From . And when there is a shift between two signifiers, it is called crossed transposition, e.g., He limped across the street and Il a traversé la rue en boitant . Based on them, there are two types of transpositions: obligatory and optional transposition Obligatory transposition is when the target language has no other choices because of the language system Vinay and Darbelnet, in Venutti: 2000. For example SL: a cup of coffee TL: secangkir kopi An optional transposition can be chosen by the translator for the sake of style so that the result of the translation fits better into the utterance. For example SL: a sound after his gone TL: sebuah suara setelah kepergiannya 5 Modulation Modulation is a shift in point of view or in cognitive categories. Whereas transposition is a shift between grammatical categories, modulation is a shift in cognitive categories, e.g., encre de Chine and Indian ink. According to Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000, it is a variation of form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view. The change can be justified when, although a literal, or even transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, but it is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic and awkward in the target language. For example SL: I broke my leg TL: kakiku patah. 6 Equivalence Based on Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000 they have repeatedly stressed that one and the same situation can be rendered by two texts using completely different stylistic and structural methods. For example, SL: raining cats and dogs TL: hujan deras sekali. 7 Adaptation According to Vinay and Darbelnet in Molina, 2002 adaptation is a shift in cultural environment, e.g., to express the message using different situation, e.g. cycling for the French, cricket for the English and baseball for the American. Or it is used in those cases where the type of situation being referred to by SL message is unknown in TL culture Vinay and Darbelnet in Venutti, 2000. For example SL: How do you do? TL: Apa kabar? Based on Vinay and Darbelnet, those seven basic procedures are complemented by other procedures. They are all classified as opposing pairs, except for the procedures of compensation and inversion Molina, 2002. 1 Compensation Compensation is an item of information or a stylistic effect from the ST that cannot be reproduced in the same place in the TT is introduced elsewhere in the TT. 2 Concentration vs. Dissolution Concentration expresses a signified from the SL with fewer signifiers in the TL. Dissolution expresses a signified from the SL with more signifiers in the TL. 3 Amplification vs. Economy These procedures are similar to concentration and dissolution. Amplification occurs when the TL uses more signifiers to cover syntactic or lexical gaps. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, dissolution is a question of langue and adaptation. The opposite is economy where the TL uses less signifier. 4 Reinforcement vs. Condensation These are variations of amplification and economy that are characteristic of French and English, e.g., English prepositions or conjunctions that need to be reinforced in French by a noun or a verb. 5 Explicitation vs. Implicitation Explicitation is to introduce information from the ST that is implicit from the context or the situation. Implicitation is to allow the situation to indicate information that is explicit in the ST. 6 Generalization vs. Particularization Generalization is to translate a term for a more general one, whereas, particularization is the opposite. 7 Inversion This is to move a word or a phrase to another place in a sentence or a paragraph so that it reads naturally in the target language in Molina, 2002. For example the word also in an English sentence which is moved in another place in Bahasa Indonesia, e.g., Also, she is fine and beautiful ... and Dia juga baik dan cantik …

2. Notions of Cohesion

Since translation is a textual process, cohesion becomes a significant concept in the translation process as it has function to identify semantic relation in the text and connecting sentence. Any successful translation process could be seen from the successful of translating process of cohesive devices as they give clues to show how the sentences relate to each other so the readers will be able to follow the ideas smoothly and the target text is understandable. Blum-Kulka 1986 proposes her notion about cohesion that it is an overt relationship holding between parts of the text, expressed by language specific markers. Hoey 1991: 12 states that cohesion is an objective property of the text. The linguistic markers cohesive ties facilitate the encoding of coherence relations. Baker 1991 also notes the definition of cohesion; it is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which provide links between various parts of a text. Those relations create a text, letting the readers to interpret words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation; it connects together actual words and expressions that we can see or hear Baker, 1991:180. Mona Baker also notes that the main value of cohesive markers seems to be that they can be used to facilitate and possibly control the interpretation of underlying semantic relations 1992: 218. Halliday and Hasan’s Cohesion in English 1976 has influenced many scholars in distinguishing cohesion. Its concept refers in specifically to the “non-structural text-formating relations”, i.e. semantic relations. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another Hallyday and Hassan, 1976:4. Cohesive relations can be found within a sentence and between sentences, and because the strength of cohesion is more on the grammatical structure, so the occurrence of them within a sentence is less importance. Based on Halliday and Hassan 1976:232, cohesion is considered to be a relation between sentences rather than within sentences. In that respect, this study is based on the concept of cohesion theory proposed by Halliday and Hassan 1976, which is cohesion as the relation between sentences or texts to build coherence of ideas.

a. Types of Cohesion

Cohesion has some kinds of marker which are called cohesive devices. In English, Halliday and Hassan classify five main categories of cohesive devices as follows Halliday and Hassan, 1976; Baker, 1992: 1 References It is a relationship which holds between two linguistic expressions. For example: Mrs. Tatcher has resigned. She announced her decision this morning. Baker, 1992:181 The pronoun she points to Mrs. Tatcher within the textual world itself.Reference, in the textual rather than the semantic sense, occurs when the reader has to retrieve the identity of what is being talked about by referring to another expression in the immediate context ibid.. 2 Substitution and Ellipsis In substitution, an item or items is replaced by another item or items, whether ellipsis involves the omission of an item Baker, 1992:186-187. For examples: Substitution You think Joan already knows? –I think everybody does . ibid Ellipsis Have you been swimming? – Yes I have . Halliday and Hassan, 1976:167 3 Lexical cohesion It refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relations within a text. Hallday and Hassan in Akindele, 2011 argue that lexical cohesion is established through the structure of lexis or vocabulary. Lexical cohesion encompasses reiteration and collocation. Also, it involves using the characteristics and features of words as well as the group relationship among them to achieve cohesion. There are two main types of lexical devices; reiteration and collocation. For example of lexical cohesion: I met some young ladies at the conference. The ladies were good looking. Akindele, 2011 4 Conjunction It is rather different in nature from the other cohesive relations. Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in themselves but indirectly, by virtue of specific meanings; they are not primarily devices for reaching