Types of Interpreting Interpreting

the most prestigious form of interpreting. Therefore, the interpreter is demanded to have a high-quality performance in using both consecutive interpreting CI and simultaneous interpreting SI al-Zahran, 2007: 19. c Court Interpreting According to Gile in Schäffner, 2004: 11, the work environment of court interpreting is “essentially at court proceedings.” However, it is not always used in courtrooms, but it can also be used in “law offices or enforcement agencies, prisons, police departments, barrister s’ chambers or any other agencies to do with the judiciary ” Mikkelson 2000: 1; Gamal 2001: 53; al-Zahran, 2007: 19. d Escort Interpreting According to Mikkelson cited by al-Zahran, 2007: 20, escort interpreting is usually occurring “during on-site visits made by official figures, business executives, investors, etc. ” and the interpreter may deal with either formal or informal situations. “CI is mostly used in this type of interpreting and is usually limited to several sentences at one time ” Gonzalez et al. 1991: 28; al-Zahran, 2007: 20. e Media Interpreting According to Pöchhacker, 2004: 15, media interpreting refers to interpreting used in various broadcasts including television and radio and it is also called „broadcast interpreting’ and „television interpreting’. It demands the interpreter to have a good performance during the interpreting activity since it would be listened and watched by various audience. In addition, the interpreter should interpret quickly to save time and to keep the audience ’s attentions. f Remote Interpreting According to Pöchhacker 2004: 21, since the 1950s there has been a form of remote interpreting called „telephone interpreting’ or „over-the-phone interpreting’ which is considered to be the oldest form of remote interpreting. It allows the interpreter to interpret from a distance and she cannot see the audience because they are in a different place. 3 Types of Interpreting in Terms of „Directionality’ According to directionality, interpreting can be classified into three types as follows. a Bilateral Interpreting` According to Pöchhacker 2004: 20, bilateral interpreting requires the interpreter to deal with two languages since the client could be the speaker andor audience. The interpreter should be able to transfer the message from Language 1 L1 into Language 2 L2 and vice versa. b Retour Interpreting According to Jones 1998: 134, when the interpreter interprets from herhis native language Language A into herhis foreign language Language B, it is called retour interpreting. When the interpreter deals with, for example, cultural terms, she would be considered to be more culturally competent in their mother language than in their foreign language. c Relay Interpreting “Relay interpreting is defined as „a mediation from source to target language in which the translational product has been realised in another language than that of the original ’” Dollerup cited in al-Zahran, 2007: 24. This situation is occurring if one of the interpreters, in a conference, does not understand several languages used at that time and then she asks another interpreter to interpret what the speaker has said. Therefore, the quality of interpreting, in this situation, is poor because what she interprets is an interpreting product, not the original one. 4 Types of Interpreting in Terms of „Language Modality’ Based on language modality, interpreting is classified into two types: „spoken-language interpreting’ and „signed-language interpreting’ Pöchhacker, 2007:17. In spoken-language interpreting, the interpreting uses verbal language to transfer the message from source language SL into target language TL, for example: from English to Bahasa Indonesia, Spanish to Dutch, Japan to English, etc. Then, in sign-language interpreting, the interpreting uses non verbal language to transfer the message from source language SL into target language TL. It is usually used in communications to deaf people. It is used, for example, if a speaker, who does not understand sign-language, wants to communicate to deaf people.

3. Equivalence in Translation

In written translation or interpreting, the term „equivalence’ is always involved and it has a very significant role since it is what translators or interpreters actually need to achieve. However, the term „equivalence’ is still problematic if the translators or interpreters do not know what types of „equivalence’ they need to employ. Therefore, Nida 1964: 159 states that “there are fundamentally two different types of equivalence: one which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic.”

a. Formal Equivalence FE

In formal equivalence, the translators or interpreters focus their attentions “on the message itself, in both form and content” Nida in Munday, 2001: 41. The aim of this formal equivalence FE is to “bring the reader [or listener] nearer to the linguistic or cultural preferences of the ST ” Hatim and Munday, 2004: 42. This form of equivalence is properly used, for example, in translating texts for foreign language learners so they can compare the source language’s structures with the target language’s structures. According to Nida 1964: 159, the translation type which has the characteristic of this structural equivalence or formal equivalence may be called a “gloss translation,” in which the translator tries to produce a translation by preserving the form and content of the original text as literary and meaningfully as possible. Translating using FE, however, makes the text sound less or unnatural since the readers would realize that what they have red or listened to is a translation or interpreting product.

a. Dynamic Equivalence DE

While formal equivalence FE is faithful to the source text, dynamic equivalence DE is not so. In dynamic equivalence, the translators or interpreters do not too orientate on the form but on the naturalness of the target text so the readers may forget or do not realize that what they have red or listened to is actually a translation or interpreting product Nida in Munday, 2001: 42. To be in line with Nida, Hatim and Munday 2004: 339 re- define the term „dynamic equivalence’ as: “A translation which preserves the effect the ST had on its readers and tries to elicit a similar response from the target reader. ” The aim of DE is to produce “complete naturalness of expression, and [it] tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his [or her] own culture” Nida, 1964: 159. Based on such explanations, it can be implied that dynamic equivalence DE tries to make the target readers experience the same effect as the original. This form of equivalence is properly used when “form is not significantly involved in conveying a particular meaning, and when formal rendering is therefore unnecessary” Hatim and Munday, 2004: 43. Both formal and dynamic equivalence are not absolute translation techniques “but rather general orientations” Hatim and Munday, 2004: 43. To decide whichever kind of equivalence will be used “must always be „contextually motivated’” Hatim and Munday, 2004: 253. „Unmotivated formal equivalence’ will be regarded as translating without consideringknowing the ST culture, whereas „unmotivated dynamic equivalence’ will be regarded as „blatant re- writing ’ Hatim and Munday, 2004: 253.

b. Adjustment

While both formal equivalence FE and dynamic equivalence DE deal with “why the translator does one thing or another” to a translation, „adjustment’ deals with “what he does” to a translation Nida, 1964: 226. Both FE and DE cannot be separated from „adjustment’ since it can be in both FE and DE. According to Hatim and Munday 2004: 43, adjustment is described as “the gradual move away from form-by-form renderings and towards more dynamic kinds of equivalence. ” This definition can be illustrated as follows. While both FE and DE are categorized as general translation orientations, „adjustment’ is categorized as “an overall translation technique which may take several forms” Hatim and Munday, 2004: 43. The explanations about the techniques under the umbrella of adjustment are addressed in the next topic Techniques of Adjustment.

4. Techniques of Adjustment

Nida 1964: 226-238 there are several techniques called as „techniques of adjustment ’ to help translators produce correct equivalents. They are additions, subtractions, and alterations. In terms of equivalence, these techniques tend to be employed in a translation orientated toward dynamic kind of equivalence. There are at least four basic purposes of these techniques: “1 permit adjustment of the form of the message to requirements of the structures of the receptor language; 2 Formal Equivalence Adjustment Dynamic Equivalence Equivalence in Translation