FARM FORESTRY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE

Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 579 Kingdom UK. The term τfamily forestry” is also used in Japan, but in China it is known as τforest farms”. There are countries like Australia, New Zealand, India and Philippines which have already used the term τfarm forestry” Harrison, Herbohn Niskanen, 2002. In Indonesia, farm forestry is characterized by afforestation in the private land Awang, 2003. Farm forestry in Indonesia is not a new phenomena as this system could be easily found in many Indonesian regions Awang, 2006, such as Repong Damar in Lampung, Simpunk in Kalimantan, and Kane or family forestry in Timor Warta Kebijakan, 2003. The model of farm forestry in Indonesia is often perceived as simple and complex agroforestry De Foresta Michon, 1997. Regardless of those models, farm forestry contributed significantly to supply basic needs to the community for living. Similar to the other places in Indonesia, East Nusa Tenggara has also been counted as a region which highly relies on the farm forestry to supply food, firewood, and clean water. The role of farm forestry in East Nusa Tenggara, particularly in Sumba, is significant to support local’s life. It is simply because the landscape of this region is dominated by savannah with semi arid dry climate which is critical in terms of farming and planting to produce primary commodities. Regarding to this, studies have been conducted to explore the practices of farm forestry in Sumba Njurumana, 2006; Njurumana et al., 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009. However, of those studies, only few have put their focus on how people utilise the local knowledge as the main point in managing the farm forestry. This paper exposes some practices of farm forestry in East Nusa Tenggara, particularly in Timor and Sumba which are involving local knowledge. Furthermore, this paper is also looking for strategy to optimise such knowledge in order to sustain farm forestry. There are three sections in this paper, firstly, the literature review regarding to key concepts of local knowledge and farm forestry. Secondly, model examination based on the local knowledge captured from literatures. Finally, there will be discussion in farm forestry strategy in optimizing local and modern knowledges. This paper reviews the farm forestry aspects from various sources such as journal articles, books, proceedings, and research reports as well as other online sources. Systematic procedure is conducted to identify literatures, which provide case studies related to research topic. Meanwhile, paper-based literatures were collected from the library of Forest Research Institute of Kupang. Both online and paper-based literatures were grouped based on three steps: title examination, abstracts review and full paper assessment Lebel, 2013.

2. FARM FORESTRY AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE

The term τhutan rakyat” could not be easily interpreted into English word by word. Experts have defined τhutan rakyat” as τsmall-scale forestry”, τfamily forestry”, τprivate forestry”, or τfarm forestry”. However, it is already common in Indonesia to associate τhutan rakyat” with the term τfarm forestry” as Indonesian are likely to translate this concept terminologically, whe re τhutan” is meant as τforest” while τrakyat” means τpeople”. People here refer to person or particular group of people who legally have authority or right to occupy and manage the land of which belong to them Suprapto, 2010. However, the idea of farm forestry is not recognized explicitly in Indonesian forest legislation. This term is merely mentioned implicitly in few forest regulations by using another terms that is likely assumed and associated with farm forestry. For example, there are two forest legislations have been applied in Indonesia Undang-undang Kehutanan No.51967 and Undang- Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 580 undang Kehutanan No.411999. Both regulations do not mention the term τfarm forestry” at all. Instead of defining farm forestry, the first legislation uses τHutan Milik” or τPrivate Forestry” which is interpreted as farm forestry. Meanwhile the later substitute the concept of farm forestry into τHutan Hak” or τProperty Right Forestry” which is forest area that grows on the land encumbered by property right Suprapto, 2010. Although lack of recognition in legal documents, there are some attempts to define this. For example, Simon 1995 has interpreted Private Forestry Hutan Milik that is used in UU No.51967 as a concept refers to the lands owned by people that are planted with lots of wooden trees species. Meanwhile, Forest Dictionary 1990 defines farm forestry as pieces of land belong to people rakyat, or customary people adat, or community ulayat that is continuously cultivated through producing forest products such as woods, whether it grows by nature or being planted. In addition to this, Hardjosoediro 1980 argues that farm forestry is all forests alongside Indonesia that do not grow inside the lands belong to government, rather it is a forest that grows in the land belong to people land. According to study carried out by Wartaputra 1990 in Suprapto 2010, farm forestry as forest development program was started in Java around 1930s by the Dutch Government. After that, the Indonesian government develope d farm forestry using a program called τKarang Kitri”. It is then followed by afforestation program in 1960s Suprapto, 2010. Meanwhile, Nawir et al. 2007 mentioned that since 1970s, commercial small-scale farm forestry on community- owned land has reached successful outcome in terms of recovering landscape and increasing household income. Additionally, t here is another benefits of farm forestry, such as: more equitable sharing of the benefits of afforestation; maintaining rural populations; maintaining traditional agricultural activities; environmental benefits; and diversification of farm income CFPLM 1989; Cossalter PyeSmith 2003, in Schirmer 2007 . Studies show that farm forestry accounts about 43 of the total forest plantation area in the country, with about 3.43 million households involved in managing 4.2 million hectares FAO, 2001; Ministry of Forestry, 1998 in Nawir et al., 2007. Meanwhile, in 1993, the number of households who manage the farm forestry were recorded at around 827.767 households of which 690.895 83.5 were in Java Island while the rest were outside Java. The areas of farm forestry itself have been increased. According to BPKH XI forest planning regional office Java-Madura, it was indicated that the farm forestry areas alongside Java Island were increase from 1.9 million hectare in 1993 to 2.7 hectare in 2009 Suprapto, 2010. In the last decades, the participation of smallholders has been encouraged through a number of forest management schemes including the farm forest Hutan Rakyat, community forest Hutan Kemasyarakatan, HKm, village forest Hutan Desa, community plantation forest HTR and partnership arrangements between private companies and rural communities e.g. Nawir Santoso, 2005; Van Noordwijk et al., 2007 in Obidzinski Dermawan, 2010. Within those schemes, the term farm forestry then is likely to come along with agroforestry as the later is popularly used as an approach or strategy to rise up the benefits from the programs. Therefore, the term farm forestry is often used interchangeably along with agroforestry Schirmer, 2007. In defining local knowledge, Berkes 1999 uses the term of local-ecological knowledge, which is a set of actions, belief, and the understanding of local ecology which is passing from generation to generation. Another thought came up from Ericksen et al. 2005 whereby the word indigenous knowledge was used to explain local knowledge. He argued that local knowledge is knowledge that is hold by people who claim and declare themself as indigenous. Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 581 Furthermore, local knowledge could be defined as a unique knowledge that is constructed in a long period of time and hold by particular people or communities in a specific place Warren, 1995, as cited in Naess, 2013. In addition to this, knowledge and skills are connected to the management system, institutions and worldview that are shaped in local context. Within the local knowledge systems, the role of knowledge is embedded along with socio-cultural context where such knowledge is coming from and using for Naess, 2013. Therefore, it could be said that the local knowledge is actually the way of how people perceiving, thinking, and doing action that is shaped due to their intensive interaction with environment where they live. 2.1 Farm Forestry in Sumba As Schirmer 2007 argued that there is no difference between farm forestry and agroforestry in recent decades as those two concepts are likely to be used interchangeably. In exploring farm forestry in Sumba, it is also inevitable that those terms would be used many times as the concepts with similar meaning. The reason is because farm forestry in Sumba is managed using agroforestry system. More over, this also has unique pattern, in which, the area where farm forests do exist are more likely side by side with the area of agriculture. However, this unique pattern will not be applied in other areas outside Sumba as this is already a part of the local knowledge systems. Figure 1. Three sections of landscapes, consists of backyard, farm, and Kaliwu farm forest in Waimangura village, Southwest Sumba Source: Njurumana et al., 2009 Farm forestry that is practiced by local people in Sumba has some similarity compare with the same systems in Timor. Both are defined as the traditional agroforestry systems applied for dry land area. In Timor, the local people say this as Mamar, while in Sumba it is called as Kaliwu. There are some differences, however, in between Mamar and Kaliwu. The earlier is more likely to be found in the areas where there is a water spring, while the later is not always exist close to the water spring Njurumana, 2006. The other difference of those systems is about the planting pattern. Mamar tends to be exists as a single landscape where trees and other plantations grow together. Meanwhile, Kaliwu is often established along with the other two landscapes. The landscapes are determined by its elevation and distinguished by specific plantations. Farm forest kaliwu took place at the top level of the cultivating landscape, followed by farmland underneath it, and the backyard is at the bottom level with agriculture plantations on it Njurumana et al., 2009. Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 582 Kaliwu is a cultivating system that is conducted by local people in Sumba from generation to generation. This cultivating system is integrated with dwelling areas, backyard and farmland. Each kaliwu is connected with other kaliwu although they belong to different landlord, in which, normally each household could own about 1.61 hectares kaliwu in average. However, people tend to cultivate it in a group, as they perceive the landscape where Kaliwu exist as one system that needs to be managed together in order to obtain better outcome. Kaliwu develops wide variety of plantations species whether they are productive species for economic purposes such as timber, fruits, firewood, animal feeds and staple food, or merely for social and cultural purposes. Table 1: Types and plantations species in Kaliwu Types of plantations Name of plantations Food plantations Padi Oryza sativa, Jagung Zea mays, Ubi Dioscorea bulbifera, Ubi KayuSingkong Manihot uttilisima, Keladi Talas Caladium bicolor, Wortel Daucus carota, Ubi jalar Ipomoa sp., Kedelai Glycine max. Farm plantations Pinang Arecha cathecu, Sirih Piper bettle, Kelapa Cocos nucifera Nangka Artocarpus heterophyllus dan Artocarpus integra, Kopi Coffea arabica, Coklat Theobroma cacao Alpukat Persea americana, Rambutan Nephelium lappase, Pisang Musa paradisiaca, Kedondong Spondias pinnata dan Lannea karomandalica, Cengkeh Eugenia aromatica, Pepaya Carica papaya, Mangga Mangifera sp., Jeruk Citrus sp., Vanili Vannili planifolia, Salak Salacca edulis, Sirsak Anona muricata, Jambu air Sysygium aquem, Nenas Ananas comosus, Jambu mente Anarcadium occidentale Farm forest plantations Jati Tectona grandis, Mahoni Swietenia mahagony dan Swietenia machrophylla, Kemiri Aleurites moluccana, Asam Tamarindus indica, Pulai Alstonia scholaris, Pilangkabesak Acacia leucophloea, Beringin Ficus benyamina, Johar Cassia siamea, Gemelina Gmelina arborea,Lamtoro Leucaena leucocephala, Gamal Gliricidea sp., Bambu Bambusa blumuena, Bidara Zyzypus mauritiana, Randu Ceiba petandra, Gewang Corypha gebanga, Kadimbil Instia bijuga, Mayela jenis kayu lokal Source: Njurumana et al. 2009. There are three main benefits which could be generated from practicing farm forestry Kaliwu. They are preserving water resource, producing food and providing firewood. 2.1.1 Water preservation Kaliwu has an outstanding contribution to create microclimate and preserving water resources quite well. For example, study carried out by Njurumana, Takandjanji and Pamungkas 2003 reveals that there is a significant difference in terms of water debit in between inside and outside the Kaliwu areas. Inside the Kaliwu, water debit has been recorded at about 0.017 littersec to 10.107 littersec, while in the outside of Kaliwu it is only about 0.003 littersec to 0.0042 littersec. It means that the microclimate would create a better situation for not only trees and other plantations species for growing, but also it is good for over all ecosystem as well, including stabilizing water availability.This advantage has been identified as the characteristic of farm forestry that is useful for afforesting the critical lands by preserving the water resource Suprapto, 2010. Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 583 2.1.2 Food production There are evidences show that kaliwu has been able to aid local people dealing with unfriendly dry land in Sumba. For example, Njurumana et al. 2009 mentioned that kaliwu in Southwest Sumba has contributed about 68.93 out of total household income by intensifying economic potential commodity such as coconuts, pinang and sirih. Meanwhile, farmland section also provides 26.8 advantages from producing various fruits and vegetables. As a holistic system, farm forestry kaliwu has created about 95.61 of total household income Njurumana et al., 2009. The more income earned ny local household, the easier for them to buy food. In addition to this, based on data collected by Njurumana et al. 2009 within the system of farm forestry kaliwu in Sumba is generally lack of rice productivity. Nevertheless, the maize production is over the target. Furthermore, instead of relying on rice and maize, there are also lots of potential commodities could be boosted as stapple food such as talas, ketela pohon, ubi jalar, dan ganyong. Those commodities are highly recommended to substitute the main popular stapple food like rice and maize as they are not too dificult to be planted in kaliwu areas. 2.1.3 Firewood availability Firewood is one of the sources that could be benefited from kaliwu. As farm forestry grows numbers of trees species that could be used for construction and woodworking purposes, the rest of them such as branches and twigs are also potential for firewood. Although there is lack of exact data related to kaliwu’s productivity on providing firewood, yet the local people argued that they have been benefited by kaliwu because they firewood is easy to collect in the area. Social economic survey in Southwest Sumba district showed that most people have said that firewood is not a big issue in their neighbourhood because it is available all the time as long as kaliwu exists Njurumana et al., 2009. 2.2 Local knowledge based management The landscape which is formed for farm forestry kaliwu purposes is not established by nature, rather it is made by human. Local people have several aims to create kaliwu surround their neighbourhood. The first is ecological reason. The landscape that consists of farm forest kaliwu, farmland and backyard is created following land elevation, where kaliwu is on the top level, farmland in the middle, and backyard is at the lower level along with housing. The reason for this is because kaliwu, whereby planted with wooden and timber plantations will take a role as protectors from landslides and strong wind. Kaliwu is benefiting farmers to protect their farmlands from erosion, which are planted with dry land rice species or maize as well as their veggies on backyard. Sometimes, farmers use rocks to create terrace in farmland to reduce the potential erosion. This design is made to make famers could work efficiently as their farm forest, farmland and backyard are taking place side by side Njurumana et al., 2009. The key success of practicing kaliwu is rewarded to the farmer group. For example, the farmer group in Waimangura village, Southwest Sumba, named Mawailo Omma has triggered famers to accelerate their work by managing and cultivating farm forest kaliwu together Njurumana et al., 2009. In Marapu language, mawailo omma has philosophical meaning, which means, τFarmers should leave their home for working at the field early in the morning or the time before the rooster is crowing”. This proverb has been used by their ancestors to motivate everyone to stay alert for working as a farmer. Ideologically, this could reflect the ethos of Marapu people to become hard workers. The farmer group implicitly has applied this proverb into their daily life, especially in managing farm forestry kaliwu. The other point that determines kaliwu becomes a farm forestry system that is still alive up until now is a traditional belief with regard to the forest conservation. Local people and forest Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 584 traditionally have very strong relation on it. It could be perceived by several traditional or customary rules that are made for protecting forest and its resources. There is a concept called Omangu Patura, Pingi Lata Luri, which means the establishment of family forestry is a basic for the sustainable life Njurumana et al., 2004. This could be meant as a principle for sustaining farm forestry such as kaliwu as a part of family forest. If a household want to keep their life in a good condition, they should have a family forestry or farm forestry to be preserved. This is also strengthened by another concept called Pahomba or known as τthe sacred forest”. Ancestors of Marapu create this concept to protect and conserve forest from destructions. Pahomba is an area of forest that is agreed by local people, throughout the customary ritual ceremony, to be protected using the traditional rules. Within the agreement, no one could make extracting forest products activities. For those who are allegedly offense this rule would be punished based on the customary law Datta et al., 1994. Therefore, kaliwu has a strong traditional value and norms to protect themselves from its extinction.

3. FARM FORESTRY OPTIMIZATION