DISCUSSION 1 Bird respond to the human disturbances

Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 457 4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Bird respond to the human disturbances In many study on forest disturbance, it has been noted that an increase in species richness is often the result of highly heterogeneous habitats due to the intermediate disturbance, also known as Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Grime, 1973; Horn, 1975; Connell, 1978. Thus in many cases, lightly disturbed forests contain richer species than that of undisturbed forest Blair 1996; Thiollay, 2002. The mixed plantation was considered as the intermediate disturbance in this study, based on the habitat structure. Buton has a relatively low human density and the plantation was not intensively managed, creating a better habitat due to the existence of shrubs, uneven tree stands, and multiple species planted. In the study site, area considered as heavy disturbance was not found. The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis also seemed to work nicely for birds in Palolo Valey of Lore Lindu National Park Waltert et al., 2004; Waltert et al., 2005, sub-urban area in Bogor, West Java Kurnia, 2012, and even in residential area in Sentul in the outskirt of Bogor, West Java Asmoro, 2012. For this study, this general pattern fit nicely with the 2014 data, but not with 2013 data when rainfall was extremely heavy. 4.2 Rainfall as an influencing factor In July 2013, when most field survey conducted, the government of West Kendari recorded that the entire Southeast Sulawesi received an extraordinary amount of rainfall. The number of rainy days was 26, producing a rainfall of 770.0 mm in that particular month Badan Statistik Kota Kendari 2014. With only 4 no-rain days, it was difficult for certain birds to fly long distance, above canopy, specifically for birds utilizing thermal as a mean for soaring or flying. Literature to discuss about impact of bird diversity due to sudden change in rainfall was very lacking. In a longer period of time, Williams Middleton 2008 noted that climate affected spatial pattern of bird abundance through the impact of the climate on insect preys and plant parts as food. Further, Rittenhouse et al. 2010 reported that hurricane in United States indeed affected bird abundance and diversity. Clearly climatic condition did affect the bird communities, especially in number, composition and distribution. In this study, it was possible that the strong above canopy flyers had to be confined in the forest mostly primary forest during the anomaly of heavy rain in July 2013, causing a different diversity pattern across the disturbance gradients. The constantly heavy rainfall apparently had forced some birds to stay in the area, mainly in the no disturbance free area i.e. primary forest as a refuge site. Some strong above canopy flyers spotted in 2013 but absent in 2014 survey were Sulawesi Serpent Eagle Spilornis rufipectus, Spot-tailed Sparrowhawk Accipiter trinotatus, Grey-rumped Treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis and White- breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus; although this species was observed in a low number in 2014. Those species – especially raptors – possibly could have been moved to the mainland of Sulawesi which would provide more preys compared to the satellite island of Buton, if weather permitted. The results of this research also showed that multiple year observation would help to reveal the response of the avian community to the changes of unpredicted climate patterns. This Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 458 study unexpectedly was conducted in strikingly different rainfall patterns in two consecutive years. A more systematic research plan could have been resulted more meaningful results on how to better understand the response of bird communities in coping with the changing climatic condition. 4.3 Implication for conservation management Although areas of mid-disturbance has a more diverse bird species, similarity analysis showed that the species inhabit no disturbance site were distinct. There were some species which preferred areas of free disturbance, for example hornbills. Raptors also preferred areas with no or minimum disturbance, although during soaring for hunting, these species could also can be observed from the areas disturbed by human. There were two species can only be found in the no disturbance site, namely White-bellied Imperial Pigeon Ducula forsteni and Sulawesi Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx fallax, both were endemic to Sulawesi and its satellite islands. Data of both observation years confirmed that these species are indeed disturbance sensitive species and heavily depended on the natural forest. In many cases conservation approach put a high priority in areas with high species diversity, which can be found in the intermediate disturbance areas. However, the disturbance sensitive species which required pristine areas also need to be conserved as well. A relatively large undisturbed forest tract is needed to conserve bird species and other taxa in favor of disturbance free sites. 5. CONCLUSION Bird communities in the study site of Lambusango Forest, Buton Island, Southestern Sulawesi showed responses to various disturbance intensities, basically followed the Intermediate Disturbance Hypotheses. Medium disturbance sites contained more bird species compare to the lower disturbance intensity sites. However, this hypotheses was rejected when the rainfall was extra-ordinarily high. High rainfall had forced many birds including strong flyers, aerial feeders, and thermal assisted birds to seek refuge in the no disturbance area i.e. primary forest, resulting a higher diversity birds. Although the intermediate disturbance sites were used by more bird species, similarity data showed that disturbance levels affected the bird composition. Further, there are few species that can only be found in the primary forest disturbance-free area. Therefore, conserving the primary forest is still needed as habitat this disturbance sensitive bird species. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to thank everybody who provided various help and assistance during our field visits: Lawana Ecoton, Pak Mantan, La Darwis, La Iwan, La Fifin, La Iman, Dr. Dave Tosh, Dr. Tom Martin, dan many other friends in the field. We also would like to extend our thanks and appreciation to BKSDA Sulawesi Tenggara for their support and permission to conduct this research. This research was co-funded by the Government of Indonesia through BOPTN Bantuan Operasional Perguruan Tinggi Negeri of Bogor Agricultural University - grant number 40IT3.11LT2014, and Operation Wallacea. Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 459 REFERENCES Asmoro, A.W.T. 2012. Keanekaragaman jenis burung pada beberapa cluster perumahan di Sentul City, Bogor, Jawa Barat. Unpublished Bachelor’s theses. Bogor: Bogor Agricultural University. Bogor. Badan Statistik Kota Kendari. 2014. Kendari dalam angka. Badan Statistik Kota Kendari. Kendari. Bibby, C., Martin, J., Stuart, M. 2000. Teknik-teknik lapangan survei burung. Bogor: Birdlife International Indonesia Programme. Blair, R.B. 1996. Land use and avian species diversity along an urban gradient. Ecological Application 62, 506-519. Coates, B.J., Bishop, K.D., Gardner, D. 1997. A guide to the birds of Wallacea: Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. Virginia: Dove Publications. Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199, 1302 –1310. Grime, J. P. 1973. Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature 242, 344-247. Horn, H. S. 1975. Markovian properties of forest succession. - In: Cody. M. L. and Diamond, J. M. Eds, Ecology and evolution of communities. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. pp 196-211. Krebs, C.J. 1999. Ecological methodology. New York: Harper Row. Kurnia, I. 2012. Keanekaragaman spesies burung dan amfibi pada lanskap didominasi manusia di wilayah Bogor. Unpublished Master’s theses. Bogor Agricultural University. Bogor. Magurran, A. 2004. Ecological diversity and its measurement. London: Croom Helmed Limited. Martin, T.E., Blackburn, G.A. 2010. Impacts of tropical forest disturbance upon avifauna on a small island with high endemism: implication for conservation. Conservation and Society 82, 127-139. Martin, T.E., Kelly, D.J., Keogh, N.T., Heriyadi, D., Singer, H.A., Blackburn, G.A. 2012. The avifauna of Lambusango Forest Reserve, Buton Island, South-east Sulawesi, with additional sightings from southern Buton. Forktail 28, 107 –112. Rittenhouse, C.D., Pidgeon, A.M., Albright, T.P., Culbert, P. D., Clayton, M. K., Flather, C. H., Huang, C., Masek, J.G., Stewart S.I., Radeloff, V. C. 2010 Conservation of forest birds: evidence of a shifting baseline in community structure. PLoS ONE 58: e11938. DOI:10.1371journal.pone.0011938. Singer H.A., Purwanto, E. 2006. Misteri kekayaan hayati hutan Lambusango. Program Konservasi Hutan Lambusango PKHL - Operation Wallacea Trust, Baubau. Thiollay, J. 1999. Bird diversity and selection of protected areas in a large neotropical forest tract. Biodiversity and Conservation 11, 1377-1395. van Helvoort, B. 1981. Bird population in the rural ecosystem of West Java. Netherlands: Nature Conservation Department. Waltert, M., Mardiastuti, A., Muhlenberg, M. 2004. Effects of land use on bird species richness in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Conservation Biology 185, 1339 –1346. Waltert, M., Mardiastuti, A., M ühlenberg, M . 2005. Effects of deforestation and forest modification on understorey birds in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Bird Conservation International 15, 257 –273. Williams, S.E., Middleton, J. 2008. Climatic seasonality, resource bottlenecks, and abundance of rainforest birds: implications for global climate change. Diversity and Distributions 14, 69 –77. DOI: 10.1111j.1472-4642.2007.00418.x. Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 460 Annex 1: Bird species found in various disturbance levels in Lambusango Forest, 2013 and 2014 species observed outside the transect area were also included, marked by x Family and Common Name Scientific Name 2013 2014 N o Dis tu rb an ce L ow Dis tu rb an ce M ed iu m Dis tu rb an ce N o Dis tu rb an ce L ow Dis tu rb an ce M ed iu m Dis tu rb an ce Accipitridae e,p Sulawesi Serpent Eagle Spilornis rufipectus ● ● ● x ● ● e,p Spot-tailed Sparrowhawk Accipiter trinotatus ● ● ● ○ ● ● e,p Sulawesi Hawk-eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus ○ ○ ● x x ○ p Rufous-bellied Eagle Lophotriarchis kienerii ○ ● ○ ○ ○ x p Barred Honey Buzzard Pernis celebensis ○ ○ ● ○ x ○ p Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ x Phasianidae Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus ○ ○ ○ ● ● ○ Turnicidae Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ Ralidae e Isabelline Bush-hen Amaurornis isabellina ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ Columbidae e White-faced Dove Turacoena manadensis ● ● ● ○ ● ○ Green Imperial Pigeon Ducula aenea ● ● ● ● ● ● e White Imperial Pigeon Ducula luctuosa ● ● ● ● ● ● e White-bellied Imperial Pigeon Ducula forsteni ● ○ ○ ● ○ ○ e Grey-cheeked Green Pigeon Treron griseicauda ○ ● ● ○ ● ● Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ Brown Cuckoo Dove Macropygia amboinensis ○ ○ ● ○ ● ○ Black-naped Fruit Dove Ptilinopus melanospila ● ● ● x ● ● Psittacidae e,p Blue-backed Parrot Tanygnathus sumatranus ○ ● ● ○ ● ● e Golden-mantled Racket-tail Prioniturus platurus ● ● ● ● ● ● e,p Pygmy Hanging Parrot Loriculus exilis ○ ○ ● ○ ● ● e Great Hanging Parrot Loriculus stigmatus ● ● ● ○ ● ● Cuculidae Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ● e Bay Coucal Centropus celebensis ● ● ● ● ● ● e Yellow-billed Malkoha Rhamphococcyx calyorhynchus ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ● e Sulawesi Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus crassirostris ● ● ○ ● ● ● Asian Drongo-Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris ● ● ● ○ ● ● Strigidae p Sulawesi Scops Owl Otus manadensis ○ ● ○ ○ ● ○ Apodidae Glossy Swiftlet Collocalia esculenta ● ● ● x ● ● Uniform Swiftlet Collocalia vanikorensis ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ Hemiprocnidae Grey-rumped Treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis ● ● ● x ○ ○ Alcedinidae Sacred Kingfisher Halcyon sancta ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● Collared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris ○ ● ● ● ● ● e,p Great-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis melanorhyncha ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● e,p Sulawesi Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx fallax ● ○ ○ ● ● ○ Coraciidae e Purple-winged Roller Coracias temminckii ○ ● ○ ○ ● ○ Artamidae White-breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus ● ● ● ○ ○ ● Bucerotidae e,p Knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix ● ● ○ ● ● ● e,p Sulawesi Hornbill Penelopides exarhatus ● ● ○ ● ● ● Picidae e Ashy Woodpecker Mulleripicus fulvus ● ● ● ● ● ● Campephagidae Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 461 Family and Common Name Scientific Name 2013 2014 N o Dis tu rb an ce L ow Dis tu rb an ce M ed iu m Dis tu rb an ce N o Dis tu rb an ce L ow Dis tu rb an ce M ed iu m Dis tu rb an ce e Pied Cuckooshrike Coracina bicolor ● ● ○ ● ● ● e Sulawesi Cicadabird Coracina morio ● ● ● ○ ● ● e White-rumped Cuckooshrike Coracina leucopygia ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ● White-shouldered Triller Lalage sueurii ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ○ Corvidae Slender-billed Crow Corvus enca ● ● ● ○ ● ● e Piping Crow Corvus typicus ● ● ● ● ● ● Dicaeidae e Grey-sided Flowerpecker Dicaeum celebicum ○ ● ● ● ● ● e Yellow-sided Flowerpecker Dicaeum aureolimbatum ● ● ● ○ ○ ● Dicruridae Hair-crested Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus ● ● ● ● ● ● Estrildidae Black-faced Munia Lonchura molucca ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● Hirundinidae Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ Meliphagidae Banda Myzomela Myzomela boiei ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● Monarchidae Black-naped Monarch Hypothymis azurea ● ● ● ● ● ● Muscicapidae Citrine Canary-Flycatcher Culicicapa helianthea ● ● ○ ● ● ● Nectariniidae p Black Sunbird Leptocoma sericea ● ● ● ● ● ● p Brown-throated Sunbird Anthreptes malacensis ● ● ● ○ ○ ● p Crimson Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● p Olive-backed Sunbird Cinnyris jugularis ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● Oriolidae Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis ● ● ● ● ● ● Pittidae p Red-bellied Pitta Pitta erythrogaster ● ● ● ○ ○ ● Sturnidae e White-necked Myna Streptocitta albicollis ● ● ● ○ ● ● e Grosbeak Starling Scissirostrum dubium ● ● ○ ○ ● ● Asian Glossy Starling Aplonis panayensis ○ ● ● ○ ○ ○ e Short-crested Myna Basilornis celebensis ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ Timaliidae Sulawesi Babbler Trichastoma celebense ● ● ● ● ● ● Turdidae e Red-backed Thrush Zoothera erythronota ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ Zosteropidae e Red-backed Thrush Zosterops consobrinorum ● ● ● ● ● ● ● present; ○ absent e Endemic to Sulawesi, p Protected species Bogor, 21-22 October 2015 462 PAPER F5 - Structure and Composition of Vegetation in Balikpapan Bay Mangrove Forest and their Implication for Conservation Antun Puspanti 1 , Wawan Gunawan 2 , Warsidi 1 1 Research Institute for Natural Resources Conservation and Technology, Samboja Jl. Soekarno Hatta Km 38 Samboja Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan, Indonesia 2 Directorate General of Climate Change Manggala WanaBakti Block VII 12 floor, Jl, GatotSubroto, Senayan, Jakarta, Indonesia Corresponding Email: puspantiagmail.com ABSTRACT Mangrove forest has the great significance function in protecting the ecosystem balance. Balikpapan bay dominated by mangrove forest is now facing the pressure from the community and industrial activity that endanger the sustainability of the ecosystem. The objective of this study was to explore the plant species including tree, sapling and seedling of the mangrove forest at Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan. Data were collected from the plots established on study site and analyzed descriptively-quantitatively using Importance Value Index IVI. The result showed that Rhizophora apiculata was dominant in all plant stages. In tree stage R.apiculata was dominant with IVI = 177,63 followed by Dysoxylumsp 41,29 andSonneratia alba 38,54. In the sapling stage R. apiculata was dominant with IVI = 167,74.S. albaIVI = 35,32 and RhizophoramucronataIVI = 34,93were the secondly and thirdly dominant species respectively in the sapling stage. In the seedling stage R.apiculata also was dominat with IVI = 81.63.Mangrove trees mostly found in the diameter range of 21-40 cm, and trees with the height of 10 – 20 m dominatedthe area of Balikpapan bay mangrove forest. Result showed that the regeneration of the mangrove forest was not normal and endanger. It affected the wildlife of the mangrove ecosystem. The abundance of plant species in the sapling stage could ensure the sustainability of Balikpapan Bay mangrove forest, including flora and fauna conservation in the mangrove forest ecosystem. Conservation strategies need to be implemented to ensure the sustainability of mangrove ecosystem. Keywords: dominant species, mangrove forest, structure and composition, vegetation, Balikpapan bay

1. INTRODUCTION