DISCUSSION 1 Bird respond to the human disturbances
Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
457
4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Bird respond to the human disturbances
In many study on forest disturbance, it has been noted that an increase in species richness is often the result of highly heterogeneous habitats due to the intermediate disturbance, also
known as Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Grime, 1973; Horn, 1975; Connell, 1978. Thus in many cases, lightly disturbed forests contain richer species than that of undisturbed
forest Blair 1996; Thiollay, 2002. The mixed plantation was considered as the intermediate disturbance in this study, based on
the habitat structure. Buton has a relatively low human density and the plantation was not intensively managed, creating a better habitat due to the existence of shrubs, uneven tree
stands, and multiple species planted. In the study site, area considered as heavy disturbance was not found.
The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis also seemed to work nicely for birds in Palolo Valey of Lore Lindu National Park Waltert et al., 2004; Waltert et al., 2005, sub-urban area in
Bogor, West Java Kurnia, 2012, and even in residential area in Sentul in the outskirt of Bogor, West Java Asmoro, 2012. For this study, this general pattern fit nicely with the 2014
data, but not with 2013 data when rainfall was extremely heavy.
4.2 Rainfall as an influencing factor In July 2013, when most field survey conducted, the government of West Kendari recorded
that the entire Southeast Sulawesi received an extraordinary amount of rainfall. The number of rainy days was 26, producing a rainfall of 770.0 mm in that particular month Badan
Statistik Kota Kendari 2014. With only 4 no-rain days, it was difficult for certain birds to fly long distance, above canopy, specifically for birds utilizing thermal as a mean for soaring or
flying. Literature to discuss about impact of bird diversity due to sudden change in rainfall was very
lacking. In a longer period of time, Williams Middleton 2008 noted that climate affected spatial pattern of bird abundance through the impact of the climate on insect preys and plant
parts as food. Further, Rittenhouse et al. 2010 reported that hurricane in United States indeed affected bird abundance and diversity. Clearly climatic condition did affect the bird
communities, especially in number, composition and distribution. In this study, it was possible that the strong above canopy flyers had to be confined in the
forest mostly primary forest during the anomaly of heavy rain in July 2013, causing a different diversity pattern across the disturbance gradients. The constantly heavy rainfall
apparently had forced some birds to stay in the area, mainly in the no disturbance free area i.e. primary forest as a refuge site. Some strong above canopy flyers spotted in 2013 but
absent in 2014 survey were Sulawesi Serpent Eagle Spilornis rufipectus, Spot-tailed Sparrowhawk Accipiter trinotatus, Grey-rumped Treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis and White-
breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus; although this species was observed in a low number in 2014. Those species
– especially raptors – possibly could have been moved to the mainland of Sulawesi which would provide more preys compared to the satellite island of
Buton, if weather permitted. The results of this research also showed that multiple year observation would help to reveal
the response of the avian community to the changes of unpredicted climate patterns. This
Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
458 study unexpectedly was conducted in strikingly different rainfall patterns in two consecutive
years. A more systematic research plan could have been resulted more meaningful results on how to better understand the response of bird communities in coping with the changing
climatic condition. 4.3 Implication for conservation management
Although areas of mid-disturbance has a more diverse bird species, similarity analysis showed that the species inhabit no disturbance site were distinct. There were some species which
preferred areas of free disturbance, for example hornbills. Raptors also preferred areas with no or minimum disturbance, although during soaring for hunting, these species could also can
be observed from the areas disturbed by human. There were two species can only be found in the no disturbance site, namely White-bellied
Imperial Pigeon Ducula forsteni and Sulawesi Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx fallax, both were endemic to Sulawesi and its satellite islands. Data of both observation years confirmed that
these species are indeed disturbance sensitive species and heavily depended on the natural forest.
In many cases conservation approach put a high priority in areas with high species diversity, which can be found in the intermediate disturbance areas. However, the disturbance sensitive
species which required pristine areas also need to be conserved as well. A relatively large undisturbed forest tract is needed to conserve bird species and other taxa in favor of
disturbance free sites. 5. CONCLUSION
Bird communities in the study site of Lambusango Forest, Buton Island, Southestern Sulawesi showed responses to various disturbance intensities, basically followed the Intermediate
Disturbance Hypotheses. Medium disturbance sites contained more bird species compare to the lower disturbance intensity sites. However, this hypotheses was rejected when the rainfall
was extra-ordinarily high. High rainfall had forced many birds including strong flyers, aerial feeders, and thermal assisted birds to seek refuge in the no disturbance area i.e. primary
forest, resulting a higher diversity birds. Although the intermediate disturbance sites were used by more bird species, similarity data
showed that disturbance levels affected the bird composition. Further, there are few species that can only be found in the primary forest disturbance-free area. Therefore, conserving the
primary forest is still needed as habitat this disturbance sensitive bird species. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank everybody who provided various help and assistance during our field visits: Lawana Ecoton, Pak Mantan, La Darwis, La Iwan, La Fifin, La Iman, Dr. Dave Tosh,
Dr. Tom Martin, dan many other friends in the field. We also would like to extend our thanks and appreciation to BKSDA Sulawesi Tenggara for their support and permission to
conduct this research. This research was co-funded by the Government of Indonesia through BOPTN Bantuan Operasional Perguruan Tinggi Negeri of Bogor Agricultural University - grant
number 40IT3.11LT2014, and Operation Wallacea.
Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
459
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Waltert, M., Mardiastuti, A., Muhlenberg, M. 2004. Effects of land use on bird species richness in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Conservation Biology 185, 1339
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M ühlenberg,
M . 2005. Effects of deforestation and forest
modification on understorey birds in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Bird Conservation International 15, 257
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abundance of rainforest birds: implications for global climate change. Diversity and Distributions 14, 69
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Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
460 Annex 1: Bird species found in various disturbance levels in Lambusango Forest,
2013 and 2014 species observed outside the transect area were also included, marked by x
Family and Common Name Scientific Name
2013 2014
N o
Dis tu
rb an
ce
L ow
Dis tu
rb an
ce
M ed
iu m
Dis tu
rb an
ce
N o
Dis tu
rb an
ce
L ow
Dis tu
rb an
ce
M ed
iu m
Dis tu
rb an
ce
Accipitridae
e,p Sulawesi Serpent Eagle
Spilornis rufipectus ●
● ●
x
● ●
e,p Spot-tailed Sparrowhawk
Accipiter trinotatus ●
● ●
○ ●
● e,p
Sulawesi Hawk-eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus
○ ○
●
x x
○ p
Rufous-bellied Eagle Lophotriarchis kienerii
○ ●
○ ○
○
x
p Barred Honey Buzzard
Pernis celebensis ○
○ ●
○
x
○ p
Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis
○ ○
○ ○
○
x Phasianidae
Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus
○ ○
○ ●
● ○
Turnicidae
Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator
○ ○
● ○
○ ○
Ralidae
e Isabelline Bush-hen
Amaurornis isabellina ○
○ ●
○ ○
○
Columbidae
e White-faced Dove
Turacoena manadensis ●
● ●
○ ●
○ Green Imperial Pigeon
Ducula aenea ●
● ●
● ●
● e
White Imperial Pigeon Ducula luctuosa
● ●
● ●
● ●
e White-bellied Imperial Pigeon
Ducula forsteni ●
○ ○
● ○
○ e
Grey-cheeked Green Pigeon Treron griseicauda
○ ●
● ○
● ●
Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis
○ ○
● ○
○ ○
Brown Cuckoo Dove Macropygia amboinensis
○ ○
● ○
● ○
Black-naped Fruit Dove Ptilinopus melanospila
● ●
●
x
● ●
Psittacidae
e,p Blue-backed Parrot
Tanygnathus sumatranus ○
● ●
○ ●
● e
Golden-mantled Racket-tail Prioniturus platurus
● ●
● ●
● ●
e,p Pygmy Hanging Parrot
Loriculus exilis ○
○ ●
○ ●
● e
Great Hanging Parrot Loriculus stigmatus
● ●
● ○
● ●
Cuculidae
Lesser Coucal Centropus bengalensis
○ ○
● ○
○ ●
e Bay Coucal
Centropus celebensis ●
● ●
● ●
● e
Yellow-billed Malkoha Rhamphococcyx calyorhynchus
○ ○
● ○
○ ●
e Sulawesi Hawk-Cuckoo
Cuculus crassirostris ●
● ○
● ●
● Asian Drongo-Cuckoo
Surniculus lugubris ●
● ●
○ ●
●
Strigidae
p Sulawesi Scops Owl
Otus manadensis ○
● ○
○ ●
○
Apodidae
Glossy Swiftlet Collocalia esculenta
● ●
●
x
● ●
Uniform Swiftlet Collocalia vanikorensis
● ●
● ○
○ ○
Hemiprocnidae
Grey-rumped Treeswift Hemiprocne longipennis
● ●
●
x
○ ○
Alcedinidae
Sacred Kingfisher Halcyon sancta
○ ○
○ ○
○ ●
Collared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris
○ ●
● ●
● ●
e,p Great-billed Kingfisher
Pelargopsis melanorhyncha ○
○ ○
○ ○
● e,p
Sulawesi Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx fallax
● ○
○ ●
● ○
Coraciidae
e Purple-winged Roller
Coracias temminckii ○
● ○
○ ●
○
Artamidae
White-breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus
● ●
● ○
○ ●
Bucerotidae
e,p Knobbed Hornbill
Aceros cassidix ●
● ○
● ●
● e,p
Sulawesi Hornbill Penelopides exarhatus
● ●
○ ●
● ●
Picidae
e Ashy Woodpecker
Mulleripicus fulvus ●
● ●
● ●
●
Campephagidae
Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
461
Family and Common Name Scientific Name
2013 2014
N o
Dis tu
rb an
ce
L ow
Dis tu
rb an
ce
M ed
iu m
Dis tu
rb an
ce
N o
Dis tu
rb an
ce
L ow
Dis tu
rb an
ce
M ed
iu m
Dis tu
rb an
ce
e Pied Cuckooshrike
Coracina bicolor ●
● ○
● ●
● e
Sulawesi Cicadabird Coracina morio
● ●
● ○
● ●
e White-rumped Cuckooshrike
Coracina leucopygia ○
○ ●
○ ○
● White-shouldered Triller
Lalage sueurii ○
● ○
○ ○
○
Corvidae
Slender-billed Crow Corvus enca
● ●
● ○
● ●
e Piping Crow
Corvus typicus ●
● ●
● ●
●
Dicaeidae
e Grey-sided Flowerpecker
Dicaeum celebicum ○
● ●
● ●
● e
Yellow-sided Flowerpecker Dicaeum aureolimbatum
● ●
● ○
○ ●
Dicruridae
Hair-crested Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus
● ●
● ●
● ●
Estrildidae
Black-faced Munia Lonchura molucca
○ ○
○ ○
○ ●
Hirundinidae
Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica
○ ○
● ○
○ ○
Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica
○ ○
● ○
○ ○
Meliphagidae
Banda Myzomela Myzomela boiei
○ ○
○ ○
○ ●
Monarchidae
Black-naped Monarch Hypothymis azurea
● ●
● ●
● ●
Muscicapidae
Citrine Canary-Flycatcher Culicicapa helianthea
● ●
○ ●
● ●
Nectariniidae
p Black Sunbird
Leptocoma sericea ●
● ●
● ●
● p
Brown-throated Sunbird Anthreptes malacensis
● ●
● ○
○ ●
p Crimson Sunbird
Aethopyga siparaja ○
● ●
○ ○
● p
Olive-backed Sunbird Cinnyris jugularis
○ ●
● ○
○ ●
Oriolidae
Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis
● ●
● ●
● ●
Pittidae
p Red-bellied Pitta
Pitta erythrogaster ●
● ●
○ ○
●
Sturnidae
e White-necked Myna
Streptocitta albicollis ●
● ●
○ ●
● e
Grosbeak Starling Scissirostrum dubium
● ●
○ ○
● ●
Asian Glossy Starling Aplonis panayensis
○ ●
● ○
○ ○
e Short-crested Myna
Basilornis celebensis ○
○ ○
○ ●
○
Timaliidae
Sulawesi Babbler Trichastoma celebense
● ●
● ●
● ●
Turdidae
e Red-backed Thrush
Zoothera erythronota ○
○ ○
○ ●
○
Zosteropidae
e Red-backed Thrush
Zosterops consobrinorum ●
● ●
● ●
● ● present; ○ absent
e Endemic to Sulawesi, p Protected species
Bogor, 21-22 October 2015
462
PAPER F5 - Structure and Composition of Vegetation in Balikpapan Bay Mangrove Forest and their Implication for
Conservation
Antun Puspanti
1
, Wawan Gunawan
2
, Warsidi
1 1
Research Institute for Natural Resources Conservation and Technology, Samboja Jl. Soekarno Hatta Km 38 Samboja Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan, Indonesia
2
Directorate General of Climate Change Manggala WanaBakti Block VII 12 floor, Jl, GatotSubroto, Senayan, Jakarta, Indonesia
Corresponding Email: puspantiagmail.com
ABSTRACT
Mangrove forest has the great significance function in protecting the ecosystem balance. Balikpapan bay dominated by mangrove forest is now facing the pressure from the
community and industrial activity that endanger the sustainability of the ecosystem. The objective of this study was to explore the plant species including tree, sapling and seedling of
the mangrove forest at Balikpapan Bay, East Kalimantan. Data were collected from the plots established on study site and analyzed descriptively-quantitatively using Importance Value
Index IVI. The result showed that Rhizophora apiculata was dominant in all plant stages. In tree stage R.apiculata was dominant with IVI = 177,63 followed by Dysoxylumsp 41,29
andSonneratia alba 38,54. In the sapling stage R. apiculata was dominant with IVI = 167,74.S. albaIVI = 35,32 and RhizophoramucronataIVI = 34,93were the secondly and
thirdly dominant species respectively in the sapling stage. In the seedling stage R.apiculata also was dominat with IVI = 81.63.Mangrove trees mostly found in the diameter range of 21-40
cm, and trees with the height of 10
– 20 m dominatedthe area of Balikpapan bay mangrove forest. Result showed that the regeneration of the mangrove forest was not normal and
endanger. It affected the wildlife of the mangrove ecosystem. The abundance of plant species in the sapling stage could ensure the sustainability of Balikpapan Bay mangrove forest,
including flora and fauna conservation in the mangrove forest ecosystem. Conservation strategies need to be implemented to ensure the sustainability of mangrove ecosystem.
Keywords: dominant species, mangrove forest, structure and composition, vegetation, Balikpapan bay