75
organisation to fulfill earlier communicated promises through various external activities. Fifth, the gap between public expectations and the real quality of the services the public
receives. This is challenge shows that public expectations have not been fulfilled.
The most important factor is the improvement services by first understanding the above five gaps or the existing gaps in service delivery. Understanding the five gaps can help
to determine the level of satisfaction and customer expectations. In addition, there is need to improve the quality of communications. By improving communication, leadership qualities
will automatically improve something that can enhance quality and also will show commitment to service quality by the provider. The third gap reveals that division of labour is
close to treating the public as part of the organisation because it acts a centre for checks and balances. While the fourth gap, can facilitate the flow of inter-unit communication between
the public and the organisation. In other words, the organisation is encouraged to of course provide services that meet the needs of the community without exceeding the organisation
capacity.
The meaning of service quality can also be examined from the perspective of the customer. One of the basic concepts on customer satisfaction refers to: 1 Privileges held by
a number of products, either directly or attractive privileges that are able to meet customer satisfaction when a product is used; 2 quality consists of everything that is free of flaws or
damages. The benchmark for quality is described above; this shows that quality has always focused on the benefit or customer satisfaction. In other words, products are designed,
manufactured, and services are provided to meet customer desires. Therefore, quality refers to everything that determines customer satisfaction; a newly produced product will be described
as good, if it meets the customers wishes. In line with the above, the Minister for Administration and Beauraucratic Reforms released a decree on the quality of services. This
decree is comprised of the following:
Simplicity, this refers to the simplification of the procedures or the process and steps involved in service delivery.
Clarity and certainty, this is concerned with the procedure or the manner in which government services are provided to the public. It is applicable to both technical and
administrative services. Secure, this means that the process and procedures for public services should ensure
safety and legality. Transparency, in regard to this point, the procedures or approaches involved should
ensure transparency in services offerred. Efficience, there should be efficience in all public services, because this will either
directly or indirectly influences the results. Economical, all services offerred must be economical to the public, the service provider
must take account: the value of the goods or services offerred to the public; the conditions and ability of the customers; and consider legality of the service.
Equal Justice, the scope and the area of jurisdiction must consider government policies on operation.
Time frame, in terms of implementation, public services should be offerred based on schedule.
C. Rural Community Empowerment
Empowerment is defined differently to the different people or groups. The term depends on the perspective under which it is being examined. However, the most easily
understood is the word empowerment which originates from the word power, refering to
76
being able or or having the ability to access education, live a better economic life and participate in politics, and of course, the ability to live an independent life. There are
similarities between rural and urban empowerment. Some of the common concepts on empowerment by the government are on universal values rooted in the different cultures of a
nation. The goal for such empowerment is to change the attitudes and behavior of society. In practice, the empowerment process involves awareness creation and community participation.
The most effective and quickest approach for rural community empowerment is that which brings together the grassroot community and the government. Many attempts have
been made by the government in the empowerment of rural communities in order to empower the people by improving their economy. The efforts taken, include: the Social Safety Net
SSN,
PDM-DKE, P2MD, p3DT
,and the fishers housing restoration. However, such activities have not been able to build selfreliants communities.
The approach to community empowerment can be looked at from both the deficit and strength based perspectives. The deficit-centered approach is based on a variety of problems
and ways to handle such problems. Its success depends on clear identification and proper problem diagnosis to establish a solution.
D. Conclusion
The various changes taking place, have led to the demand for broad-based education. These demands aim to influence change and require that strategies are developed in regard to
the environment, education needs, and the communitys demands. This means that education should be able to guide strategies and policies which are aimed at overcoming changes. In
other words, each of the activity requires proper management, if the set objectives are to be achieved.
References Atmodiwirio, Soebagio. 2002. Manajemen Pelatihan. Jakarta : PT. Ardadizya.
Direktorat pembinaan pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan paud, nonformal dan informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Diklat Berjenjang Tingkat Dasar
. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal
Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidik Dan Tenaga Kependidikan Paud, Nonformal Dan Informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Penilaian Dalam Pembelajaran Anak Usia Dini.
Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal.
Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidik Dan Tenaga Kependidikan Paud, Nonformal Dan Informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Penilaian Dalam Pembelajaran Anak Usia Dini Etika dan Karakter
. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal.
Ida.2012. Pengaruh Metode Pembelajaran terhadap Peningkatan Kompetensi Pada Diklat Perencanaan Partisipasi,Bogor
Mudjiono dan Dimyati. 2002.
Belajar dan Pembelajaran
. Jakarta : PT. Rineka Cipta. Notoatmodjo, S. 1998. Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia, Edisi Revisi. Jakarta : PT.
Rineka Cipta. Sardin, 2012,
Pengaruh Persepsi Orang Tua Tentang Anak, Status Sosial Ekonomi Keluarga, Keterlibatan dalam Program Taman Kanak-Kanak, dan Pola Asuh Mendidik
Terhadap Kesiapan Bersekolah Anak Taman Kanak-Kanak Studi Kausal Pada Keluarga Yang Memiliki Anak TK Di Kabupaten Bandung,
Disertasi, Universitas Negeri Jakarta.
77
Setyawan,D. 2005. Peranan Pendidikan dan Pelatihan Dalam Meningkatkan Kompetensi Dan Kualitas Sumder Daya Manusia Aparatur. [Online]. Tersedia: www. makasar.lan.go.id
[2012, April 12]. Veithzal Rivai, 2004.
Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Untuk Perusahaan
, Jakarta, PT.Raja Grafindo Persada.
78
THE EFFECT OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN INDONESIA
Mohamad Fahmi and Putri Grace Ninibeth Jewelery S. Department of Economics, Universitas Padjadjaran
ABSTRACT
This study analyzes the effect of early childhood education on academic performance in Indonesia. We use ordinary least square method to estimate the effect of kindergarten
education TK on Indonesian language and mathematics score in primary and secondary school. We use the Indonesian Family Life Survey IFLS in 2007 to obtain a sample data of
1,013 individuals to estimate the effect of kindergarten education. We found that the
kindergarten education has a weak effect on students‘ performance. We also found that gender, location, and school type have stronger effect than kindergarten education.
Keywords : Early Childhood Education, Kindergarten, Academic Achievement, Indonesia, IFLS
JEL:
Introduction
Legislation of Indonesia Number 20 Year 2003 on National Education System defines Early Childhood Education
Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini PAUD
as an effort to provide guidance to children from birth to age six years are done through educational stimulation to
help the growth and development of the physical and spiritual so that children are ready to enter the education further. Early Childhood Education is a profitable investment for the
children. Cost-Benefit Ratio for early childhood policy indicates gains of 4 to 5 times, even higher even than the amount invested for the development of early childhood Pirozzi, 2013.
However, the benefitsthat need to be considered not only gains greater than the costs, but also early childhood education programs are able to be a better program to improve childrens
success than other programs Currie, 2001. Early childhood education can be an attractive option to avoid poverty for the childs future life Currie, 2001. Early childhood education
program also aims to support disadvantaged children have equal opportunities to start a school
with other children Ou and Reynolds, 2006. Berlinski‘s study 2006 showed the that attendance of pre primary school affect positively to grades result of Spanish Language and
Mathematics. Precompulsory and preschool education also affect the grades scores for Mathematics and Reading Goodman and Sianesi, 2005.
One article in the website of the World Bank World Bank, 2013 explained that the Indonesian government, the Dutch government, and the World Bank cooperated to conduct
programs that expand early childhood services in 2008. The World Bank conducted a study to evaluate the impact of the program on children early age. World Bank study shows that early
childhood services program provides promising benefits for children. The results of the study also showed that the group of children who attend the Education and Early Childhood
Development
Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Anak Usia Dini PPAUD
made progress in thinking and language abilities, which are two important things to be ready for school. The
girls also got great benefit from this PPAUD program. Based on research in developing countries, early childhood development to give an
increase in school enrollment and educational performance, as well as the impact on the possibility of future get to work Pirozzi, 2011. Early Childhood EducationPAUD should be
a fun place for the kids to keep them interested in learning and playing Kartika, 2013. The
79
participation of parents is also important in the development of the power of the socialization of children Ou and Reynolds, 2006. However, an expensive early childhood may be the
cause there are many children who can not attend early childhood education programs. This is due to their parents income is low. Under the 2003 Education Law Article 28, ECD can be
done anywhere, such as in a family and environment Nazarah, 2009. Early Childhood Education has a positive impact on childrens success in the future. Children
are taught as early as possible so that development is not too late. If the children are ready to learn from a very young age, then it is likely to succeed in school and their future becomes
larger UNICEF Indonesia, 2012. This study will analyze the influence of Early Childhood Education ECD against the National Test Score in Indonesia. The author makes
kindergarten education formal early childhood and Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score as the main subject of this study as the research Goodman Sianesi 2005. This
research is expected to provide a boost for the government to further support the expansion of ECD services in Indonesia, so that children of all walks of life can enjoy the benefits.
Early Childhood Education has a positive impact on childrens success in the future. Children are taught as early as possible so that development is not too late. If the children are ready to
learn from a very young age, then it is likely to succeed in school and their future becomes larger UNICEF Indonesia, 2012. This study will analyze the influence of Early Childhood
Education ECD against the National Test Score in Indonesia. The author makes kindergarten education formal early childhood and Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score as the main subject of this study as the research Goodman Sianesi 2005. This
research is expected to provide a boost for the government to further support the expansion of ECD services in Indonesia, so that children of all walks of life can enjoy the benefits.
Literature Review
Report of the National Research Council 2000 about intervention and early childhood education divided development of childrens ability to divide into three, namely
cognitive ability, school readiness, and social and feelings development Currie, 2001. Cognitive ability can be measured by the individual‘s ability to read and count. These two
things are an important part of the teaching-learning process. A survey conducted by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 1991 to teachers‘ kindergarten
found that only 65 percent of the students are ready to learn Currie, 2001. One of the things that caused this, which is only 10 percent of kindergarten teachers who think that children
need to know the alphabet Lewit Baker, 1995 in Currie, 2001. Cognitive development can also be measured by academic achievement, education participation, and school attendance of
individuals Burger, 2010. Several studies have shown a positive effect of early childhood education to these three points. One of these studies Garces, Thomas, and Currie 2000
showed that Head Start programs can significantly increase the likelihood of high school completion rate and the possibility of going to college Currie, 2001. Early childhood
education can also reduce behavior problems and improve the quality of individual education. Temple et al. 2000 observed children at the end of high school and found that the
intervention program the Chicago Child-Parent Center is able to reduce the 24 percent dropout rate Currie, 2001.
Early childhood is a period of 0 to 8 years of age, which is a time of remarkable brain growth and a foundation for further learning and development Mott, nd. According to
UNICEF Pirozzi, 2011, cognitive development, language and feelings of a child can be developed through real stimulation, like being hugged, courted, and other interactive activities
as a baby. Every child should be given a good basis from an early age, because their future will determine the future of their community, nation, and world LeMoyne, nd.
80
Parent education can be used as a measure for parents to assess the appropriate level of education for their children Goodman Sianesi, 2005. Marital status of parents can
describe how parents divide their time and income to the growth and development of their children Goodman Sianesi, 2005. Martinez-Alba 2013 has reviewed a book Promising
Practices for Fathers Involvement in Childrens Education Ho Hiatt, 2013 which this book discussed the role of the father in child development. This book showed the father and
son relationship has positive influence on childrens educational outcomes. The father considers necessary to meet the financial needs of their children. If there is no role of fathers
in the childrens lives, then the possibility of children living in poverty is greater. They also have their own expectations on their children, such as school attendance, good grades, and
profession or employment in the future. If the father can spend time with their children, it can prevent crime in adolescence.
The role of a mother in a childs life is not in doubt. However, today more and more career women who are also mothers. They often have difficulty in managing time between
caring for children and working. The women aged 25 to 54 years has been a labor in most OECD countries and the number is increasing OECD, 2011d in Burger, 2013. In countries
Europian Union members, only one out of ten couples who have young children, who still assumes that man has role to work for a living while a woman for caring for a family member
Jaumotte, 2003, in Burger, 2013.
Family socioeconomic status has an influence on childrens development. Research Carlson and Corcoran 2001 says that higher family income had a positive effect on children
which can encourage achievement and social behavior of children. Conversely, families who live in poverty lead role of parents becomes less effective and affect negatively on childrens
development Conger et al., 1992; Dodge, Petit, Bates, 1994. The level of family poverty is associated with low educational attainment and increased levels of negative intellect among
children up to adults Leone et al., 2003 in Burger, 2013. Low socioeconomic status will result children who are not ready to formal education, because of inadequate learning
environment at home Leseman, 2002 in Burger, 2013. Children who grow up in poor neighborhoods are difficult for getting adequate education institutions, so this will be a source
of low academic progress Pong Hao, 2007 in Burger, 2013.
Several previous studies have analyzed the influence of early childhood education participation on school grades and future earnings. One of the studies is Goodman and
Sianesi‘ research 2005 which analyze the effect of precompulsory and preschool education on cognitive abilities and socialization of children, as well as the acquisition of wages in
adulthood. Research of Goodman and Sianesi 2005 used data from the National Child Development Survey NCDS 1958 Research and Sianesi Goodman found that education
precompulsory affect significantly on the childs ability in reading and mathematics at age 7 years. This influence remained significant until the age of 16 years despite declining. The
study also found a significant effect of preschool education on childrens cognitive abilities at the age of 7 years, despite this is weak. This influence continued to survive until the age of 16
years.
Subsequent research by Berlinski, Galiani, and Manacorda 2008 analyze how preschool education may affect the number of years of education achieved. This study utilizes
the uniqueness of the data Uruguayan Encuesta de Hogares Continua ECH from 2001 to 2005, this study found a significant effect of preschool participation on educational years
completed since age is still very early. The study also found that individuals who did not follow the preschool often exposed dropout. In particular, children who had mothers with
lower levels of education receive greater benefits from preschool education.
The next studies explains that early childhood education is also affect positively on children who come from economically disadvantaged families. One of these studies
81
conducted by Ou and Reynolds 2006. This study aims to estimate the relationship between preschool program participation Chicago Child-Parent Center CPC with educational
attainment at age 22 years. The results of this study are CPC preschool participation effect on school completion rates are higher significantly, and the possibility of going to college is
higher. Then, another research of Ou 2005 found that the cognitive benefits alone can not last long, if it does not receive strong support from environmental factors. The findings in this
study stated that environmental factors, such as family and school, have an important role in shaping the development of the children. Research by Campbell, et al. 2002 presented the
results of their research on early childhood education in the Abecedarian project. This study found a significant effect of preschool services to the academic and intellectual levels. These
studies explain that education or intervention from an early age affects the future of children.
Method
This study uses Ordinary Least Square OLS regression that simple to calculate the magnitude of the effect of Early Childhood Education ECD against the
National Test Score
Ujian Nasional UN
school when the individual obtained at elementary and junior high level. The author divides the model based on the National
Examination, the Indonesian language and Mathematics‘s national test score, as well as based on the level of individual schools, namely elementary and junior high level.
Econometric model that is compiled in the study is as follows:
UNSD_bhs
i
=
α
+
α
1
TK
i
+
α
2
laki_laki
i
+
α
3
negeri
i
+
α
4
tinggal_kelas
i
+
α
5
bekerja
i
+
α
6
urban
i
+
α
7
menikah
i
+
α
8
ibu_SD
i
+
α
9
ibu_SMP
i
+
α
10
ibu_SMA
i
+ α
11
ibu_univ
i
+ α
12
ayah_SD
i
+ α
13
ayah_SMP
i
+
α
14
ayah_SMA
i
+ α
15
ayah_univ
i
+
ε
i
1
UNSD_mtk
i
= +
1
TK
i
+
2
laki_laki
i
+
3
negeri
i
+
4
tinggal_kelas
i
+
5
bekerja
i
+
6
urban
i
+
7
menikah
i
+
8
ibu_SD
i
+
9
ibu_SMP
i
+
10
ibu_SMA
i
+
11
ibu_univ
i
+
12
ayah_SD
i
+
13
ayah_SMP
i
+
14
ayah_SMA
i
+
15
ayah_univ
i
+ u
i
2
UNSMP _bhs
j
= +
1
TK
j
+
2
laki_laki
j
+
3
negeri
j
+
4
tinggal_kelas
j
+
5
bekerja
j
+
6
urban
j
+
7
menikah
j
+
8
ibu_SD
j
+
9
ibu_SMP
j
+
10
ibu_SMA
j
+
11
ibu_univ
j
+
12
ayah_SD
j
+
13
ayah_SMP
j
+
14
ayah_SMA
j
+
15
ayah_univ
j
+
16
UNSD_bhs
j
+
ν
j
3
UNSMP _mtk
j
= θ + θ
1
TK
j
+ θ
2
laki_laki
j
+ θ
3
negeri
j
+ θ
4
tinggal_kelas
j
+
θ
5
bekerja
j
+
θ
6
urban
j
+
θ
7
menikah
j
+
θ
8
ibu_SD
j
+
θ
9
ibu_SMP
j
+
θ
10
ibu_SMA
j
+ θ
11
ibu_univ
j
+ θ
12
ayah_SD
j
+ θ
13
ayah_SMP
j
+
θ
14
ayah_SMA
j
+ θ
15
ayah_univ
j
+ θ
16
UNSD_mtk
j
+
σ
j
4
This study only used kindergarten education as a form of formal early childhood services so that the estimation can be demonstrated clearly form early childhood services that
may affect the National Test Score, so that a given policy implications are also right on target. The author chose Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score because these two subjects can describe the cognitive abilities of the individual. In addition to the variable UN SD _bhs
and UN SD _mtk, there are as many as 15 independent variables dummy is used, where the value is 0 or 1.
82
Table 1 Criterion Variables
Karakteristik Kriteria
Anak
TK ikut TK=1; tidak ikut TK=0
Jenis Kelamin laki-laki=1; perempuan=0
Bekerja sambil bekerja=1; tidak sambil bekerja=0
Karakteristik Kriteria
Keluarga
Pendidikan Ibu tingkat SD=1; tidak sekolahsekolah
khusus=0 tingkat SMP=1
tingkat SMA=1 tingkat Universitas=1
Pendidikan Ayah tingkat SD=1; tidak sekolahsekolah
khusus=0 tingkat SMP=1
tingkat SMA=1 tingkat Universitas=1
Status pernikahan menikah=1; tidak menikah=0
Letak Geografis perkotaan urban=1; pedesaan rural=0
Pendidikan
Tipe Sekolah negeri=1; lainnya=0
Pengulangan Kelas tinggal kelas=1; tidak tinggal kelas=0
Nilai Ujian Nasional UN Nilai UN Bahasa Indonesia dan Matematika
This study uses the F-statistical significance test and t-statistics to determine determine the effect of early childhood education and other factors on the score of UN. This study also
uses robust standard errors to address possible problems heteroskedastis in the econometric model. The author obtained the necessary information from the Indonesian Family Life
Survey IFLS 2007IFLS4. This study used it because it provides information like participation kindergarten education in 2007 and the score of EBTANAS UAN UN. This
study only took two subjects from EBTANAS UAN UN because the total subjects are different for each respondent. IFLS4 also provide information, such as gender, education and
type of school that followed by the individual, as well as the geographic location of residence. IFLS4 also provides information about the highest completed educational level and marital
status of individual parents. The author takes individuals aged 11 to 16 years for the study.
Result and Analysis
This study has a sample size of 1,013 individuals for elementary level and 373 individuals for junior high level before regression. The author obtained the data necessary
information from the Indonesian Family Life Survey IFLS in 2007 Here are the results of a statistical description of the independent variables used in this study,
83
Table 2 Statistics Description Elementary Level
Variabel Rata-rata
Std. Deviasi Minimum
Maksimum
TK 0.4689
0.4993 1
laki_laki 0.4857
0.5000 1
negeri 0.8973
0.3037 1
tinggal_kelas 0.1136
0.3175 1
bekerja 0.6515
0.4767 1
urban 0.5143
0.5000 1
menikah 0.8392
0.3675 1
ayah_SD 0.2521
0.4344 1
ayah_SMP 0.1419
0.3491 1
ayah_SMA 0.2485
0.4324 1
ayah_univ 0.0832
0.2764 1
ibu_SD 0.2989
0.4581 1
ibu_SMP 0.1372
0.3442 1
ibu_SMA 0.2016
0.4015 1
ibu_univ 0.0528
0.2237 1
The author uses OLS to estimate the effect of kindergarten education participation on Indonesian Language and Mathematics‘s score in primary and secondary education. The
results of the statistical description in Table 2 and Table 3 shows, in addition to the variable UN SD _bhs and UN SD _mtk, there are as many as 15 dummy variables were used. The
average value of the dummy variable indicates the percentage owned. For example, at the primary level, the average value of
―man‖ variable is 0.4857, it means the percentage of individuals that male sex was 48.57 and the remaining 51.43 are women. Another
example for the junior high level, the average value of ―‖urban‖ variable is 0.5550, it means
the percentage of individuals who live in urban areas it was 55.5 and the remaining 44.5 live in rural areas. The average value for the UNSD _lang and UNSD _math variables is
the average value of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics‘s score. The maximum score of UNSD_lang is 9.85 the highest of all the samples, while the minimum score is 4.01.
Mathematics‘s highest score at 10, while the lowest score is 2.87.
Table 3 Statistics Description Junior High Level
Variabel Rata-rata
Std. Deviasi Minimum
Maksimum
TK 0.4960
0.5007 1
laki_laki 0.5121
0.5005 1
negeri 0.7399
0.4393 1
tinggal_kelas 0.0054
0.0731 1
bekerja 0.1019
0.3029 1
urban 0.5550
0.4976 1
menikah 0.8383
0.3687 1
ayah_SD 0.3016
0.4597 1
ayah_SMP 0.1175
0.3225 1
ayah_SMA 0.2921
0.4554 1
ayah_univ 0.0762
0.2657 1
ibu_SD 0.3460
0.4765 1
84 ibu_SMP
0.1619 0.3689
1 ibu_SMA
0.1873 0.3908
1 ibu_univ
0.0476 0.2133
1 UNSD_bhs
7.094989 1.180295
4.01 9.85
UNSD_mtk 6.57962
1.447868 2.87
10
The author divides the estimation results in three equations. The first equation just make kindergarten education as the only independent variable. The second equation adds
other factors as control variables but do not include the characteristics of the parents, while the third equation consists of all control variables including parental characteristics.
The estimation results indicate that in the elementary level all independent variables significantly affect the score of the UN jointly, unless the Mathematics in equation 1. This is
evidenced by the probability of regression value Prob F that less than the significance level α. While partially, not all independent variables significantly affect the score of the UN.
Kindergarten education affect the score of Indonesian Language significantly in equation 1 and 2. Kindergarten education is able to increase the score of the Indonesian
Language by 33.78 in equation 1 and 24.37 in the second equation. Coefficient of kindergarten education decreases as the other factors being added besides education
kindergarten.
Gender has no significant effect on the acquisition score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics for elementary level. These results differ from those estimates junior high
level estimation. It also illustrates that there is no difference between the ability of elementary school students men and women.
Type of public schools affect the value of the UN Indonesian pad equations 2 and the UN Mathematics in equation 2 and 3 significantly. Individuals who enroll in public
schools received grades Indonesian UN was 23.97 higher than individuals who attend nonpublic school. Then, individuals who enroll in public schools UN Mathematics scored at
46.24 higher in equation 2 and 37.23 higher in equation 3 than individuals who attend nonpublic school.
Then, the individual who ever repeated classes scored significantly lower for both subjects in equation 2 and 3. Individuals who have ever repeated class get Indonesian
Language‘s score 33.95 lower in equation 2 and 34.12 lower in equation 3 than individuals who did not repeat class. As for the Mathematics, individuals who ever repeated
class gained 38.02 lower score in equation 2 and 43.65 lower in equation 3 rather than individuals who did not repeat class.
Geographical location of residence of individuals also affect significantly the acquisition score of the Indonesian Language. Individuals who live in urban areas obtain
Indonesian Language‘s score higher than individuals who live in rural areas. Individu who live in rural areas still use the language of a particular area, so rarely use Indonesian.
Some level of parental education on the equation 3 also significantly affect the score of the UN. Mothers highest education level that reached elementary school, high school, and
college can improve individual grades mathematics examination. This mothers education level can increase the acquisition Mathematics‘s score by of 28.16, 47.13, and 91.05
respectively. The effect of maternal education coefficient also increases as higher levels of education. Fathers highest educational level that reached college also significantly increase
the score of Indonesian Language by 49.85.
85
Table 4 Estimation Output Elementary Level
UN Bahasa Indonesia UN Matematika
Variabel 1
2 3
1 2
3 Konstanta
6.9522 6.7823 7.1105 6.5165 6.1396
6.2829 0.0555
0.1685 0.2948
0.0609 0.1992
0.3683 TK
0.3378 0.2437 0.0690
0.1437 0.1387
-0.0684 0.0795
0.0815 0.0946
0.0978 0.0993
0.1139 laki_laki
-0.0890 -0.1060
0.0599 0.0768
0.0803 0.0902
0.0974 0.1073
negeri 0.2397
0.2022 0.4624
0.3723 0.1431
0.1674 0.1729
0.2020 tinggal_kelas
-0.3395 -0.3412
-0.3802 -0.4365
0.1307 0.1440
0.1482 0.1668
bekerja -0.1410
-0.1347 -0.1003
-0.0601 0.0869
0.0999 0.1023
0.1152 urban
0.3557 0.3217
0.0986 -0.0295
0.0823 0.1002
0.1000 0.1162
menikah -0.3409
-0.2563 0.2172
0.2759 ibu_SD
-0.0414 0.2816
0.1237 0.1421
ibu_SMP 0.0000
0.2418 0.1534
0.2201 ibu_SMA
-0.0003 0.4713
0.1555 0.2091
ibu_univ 0.1976
0.9105 0.2809
0.3161 ayah_SD
0.1464 0.0270
0.1299 0.1505
ayah_SMP 0.0345
-0.0194 0.1533
0.1950 ayah_SMA
0.2604 0.1347
0.1639 0.2108
ayah_univ 0.4985
0.2252 0.2297
0.2760 N
747 746
624 744
743 625
R
2
0.0236 0.0684
0.0842 0.0030
0.0250 0.0597
Prob F 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000
0.1420 0.0100
0.0002
Note : - p0.05, p0.01, p0.001 - robust standard error
The next result is from junior high level estimation. The results of the regression estimation show all independent variables in the regression significantly affect the score of the
UN together both Indonesian Language and Mathematics subjects. Probability value of the regression results Prob F junior high schools is smaller than the significance level
α. The estimation results indicate that the kindergarten education significantly affect the
score of the Indonesian Language in equation 1 and 2 alone, and significantly affect the score of Mathematics in equation 1. Kindergarten Education increases 39.24 Indonesian
Language‘s score in equation 1 and 31.92 in equation 2. Kindergarten Education also increases the score of Mathematics 41.84 in equation 1. Coefficients of kindergarten
education variable that affect the score of the UN also decreased from equation 1 to equation 3
in junior high level estimation.
86
Gender of the individual was also a significant influence on Indonesian Language‘s
score in equation 2 and 3. Individual males scored Indonesian Language 32.83 lower in equation 2 and 37.4 lower in equation 3 rather than individual women.
Individuals who enroll in public schools scored significantly Indonesian Language higher than those who enroll in nonpublic school in equation 2 and 3. Type of public
schools providing score of Indonesian Language 37.08 higher in equation 2 and 36.12 higher in equation 3 than other types of schools.
At the junior high level estimation results, parental marital status showed a significant effect on the score of Indonesian Language. Complete parents and married affect positively
on individuals by increasing the score of the Indonesian Language by 79.51. The highest educational level of mothers who reach college are also significantly increases the Indonesian
Language‘s score of 60.3. It turns out that the score of the UN at the elementary level also affects the score of the
UN in the junior high level. Indonesian Language‘s score in elementary level can significantly increase the score of the Indonesian Language‘s score junior high level of 10.74 in equation
2. Mathematics‘s score in elementary level affect the score of Mathematics junior high level for 42.95 and 43.8 in equation 2 and 3 respectively. This is because Mathematics is
one subject that is difficult to master, so the ability to master this subject may not differ much while still in elementary school and junior high.
Table 5 Estimation Output Junior High Level
UN Bahasa Indonesia UN Matematika
Variabel 1
2 3
1 2
3 Konstanta
7.4298 6.5838 5.7034
7.1600 4.5241
5.1040 0.0817
0.4196 0.4855
0.1033 0.4602
1.1258 TK
0.3924 0.3192 0.2159
0.4184 0.1906
0.1308 0.1148
0.1342 0.1461
0.1663 0.1987
0.2140 laki_laki
-0.3283 -0.3740
-0.0849 -0.0963
0.1322 0.1456
0.1777 0.2026
negeri 0.3708
0.3612 0.0646
0.0457 0.1443
0.1536 0.2088
0.2165 bekerja
0.1129 0.2279
-0.1656 -0.2546
0.2350 0.2591
0.3072 0.3443
urban 0.0639
0.0280 -0.1421
-0.2062 0.1341
0.1461 0.1848
0.1935 menikah
0.7951 -0.7847
0.1634 1.0933
ibu_SD 0.3059
0.2671 0.1854
0.2775 ibu_SMP
0.2771 -0.0499
0.2200 0.3464
ibu_SMA 0.2552
0.0039 0.2344
0.3377 ibu_univ
0.6030 0.3147
0.3356 0.4486
ayah_SD 0.0545
0.1048 0.2017
0.2841 ayah_SMP
0.0601 0.1866
0.2767 0.3649
ayah_SMA -0.0162
0.3565 0.2259
0.3127
87 ayah_univ
0.3283 0.2436
0.3313 0.4582
UNSD_bhs 0.1074
0.0929 0.0583
0.0679 UNSD_mtk
0.4295 0.4380
0.0676 0.0733
N 324
259 222
327 263
226 R
2
0.0350 0.1121
0.1602 0.0191
0.1738 0.1990
Prob F 0.0007
0.0001 0.0000
0.0123 0.0000
0.0000
Note : - p0.05, p0.01, p0.001 - robust standard error
At the elementary level, the independent ―married‖ variable and ―working‖ variable have not a significant influence on the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics. As
for the junior high level, the ―working‖ and ―urban‖ variable do not affect the score of
Indonesian Language and Mathematics significantly. At the junior level, ―repetition‖ variable not included in the regression because the individual who ever repeated classes only two
people, so it is less valid to be included in the regression.
Kindergarten education affect the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics if all other factors that may be influence too was not added in the regression. This causes the
effect of preschool education on the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics in equation 1 and 2 for primary and secondary education to be invalid or biased. The low
value of R
2
for each equation for the both level schools also suggests that the effect of kindergarten education will not be valid if the other factors are not added in the regression.
Kindergarten education variable coefficients also decreased from equation 1 to equation 3 for the both level schools.
Conclusion
Based on the research that has been presented in previous chapters, the author can take a few conclusions. The results of this study indicate that kindergarten education TK affect
on the score of Indonesian Language and Mathematics National Test Score significantly when all other factors are not added in the regression. Kindergarten education is no longer
significant when other factors added to the regression, especially the factors derived from the characteristics of the parents. This causes the effect of kindergarten education to be invalid or
biased. The results of the study authors also showed that the mothers education has a significant effect on the acquisition score of the Mathematics at elementary level. It means the
mother has an important role in childrens academic grades since elementary school, especially for subjects that are difficult to master. Not only the mothers education, the results
of this study also shows the influence of higher education owned by a father against the score of Indonesian Language in elementary level. Marital status of parents affects the acquisition
score of the UN only in junior high level. This may be caused by psychological factors have a child who has a more mature knowledge of the condition of the parents during old teenager.
Several other factors also significantly affect the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics elementary and junior high levels. Neighborhood individuals residing in urban
areas significantly influence the score of the UN elementary level. Types of schools followed a significant effect on the score of Mathematics in elementary level and Indonesian Language
in junior high level. The problem repetition class is also associated with a significant effect on the score of Indonesian Language and Mathematics.
Early Childhood Education issues that expensive or lack of qualified educators and interactive with children can be a cause of early childhood influences on achievement in
school becomes less than the maximum for the children. It can be used as the subject of
88
further research on early childhood education. Early Childhood Education can be a means for children to train the ability to think and read as a self preparation before entering into formal
education. Early Childhood Education requires that funds must be spent by the parents. This needs to be considered for the government to issue a policy, such as grants or tax reductions
for early childhood services Burger, 2010b, to support the expansion of early childhood programs. The government can co-founded institutions of early childhood education with a
low cost or free, but has quality educators so that more children get the opportunity to acquire education praformal, learn while playing, which is a positive impact on their future academic
achievement.
The study also found that in addition to preschool education, other factors influence the individual academic grades. The government needs to encourage outreach to the parents
that the parents need to spend time with their children, especially when learning. Collaboration between teachers in the school and parents is important to monitor the academic
progress of children and control their behavior so as to reduce problems such as repeat classes or dropout. The government also needs to pay attention to the quality of education in rural
areas. Schools in rural areas requires a qualified teaching staff and better facilities in order to bring out children that can be competent with children who attend school in urban areas.
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Information, Communication and Technology ICT in Early Childhood Education
92
93
ROBOTICS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Yudianto Sujana Program Studi PG-PAUD, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta
Email: yudianto.sujanagmail.com
Abstract: This article presents the robotics technology and the benefits on early childhood development. Robotics technology can help children to think creatively and systematically,
learn to work together, problem solving and improve fine motor skills. The use of robotics in early childhood development is also very suitable to constructivism theory which states that
learning is to build knowledge of the self. The robot that used is Huna robotic education kit that is suitable for children because it can be assembled into a variety of shapes and are
made of materials that are safe for children. This article also describes the steps in introducing robotics technology to early childhood.
Keywords: robotics, early childhood development, educational robotics kit
Introduction
Robotic technology is one of the very rapid development of technology, including in Indonesia. For common people the robot is sensed as a machine that is made up of metals and
shaped like a human or animal that can move and do activities such as living creatures. This is reasonable due to the lack of education about robots in Indonesia, the robot knows only
through robot-themed films in the form of humans or animals. The robot itself has long been used in industry to increase productivity of work. Many jobs are less suitable if done by
humans as a job that needs a high level of accuracy and high risk jobs can be replaced by robots.
The word robot comes from the Czech language robota meaning workers. The word robot was first used in a play called Rossums Universal Robots in 1921 to refer to a
machine that can do the work of humans automatically. While the definition of a robot according to the International Organization for Standardization is an automatically
controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, the which may be either fixed in place or mobile foruse in industrial automation
applications. ISO, 2012.
The use of robots today not only limited to the needs of work, but the robot can also be used as a medium of learning, which is called the educational robot. As the name implies,
educational robot is a robot which is used as a medium of learning, because through educational robots we can learn a variety of disciplines such as mathematics, science, ICT
and others. Educational robot can be assembled into a variety of shapes and can be programmed to perform a variety of movements and work, so that it can increase creativity.
Various types of educational robots can be met in the market such as Roborobo, NXT, Lego, Fishertecnik, i-Robo, Robo Kai, Polulu, and Huna Robo.
The use of educational robot as a learning medium can be initiated at an early age. In early childhood, educational robot utilized as a means to improve aspects of child
development such as cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art. One type of robot that is suitable for use in early childhood is Huna Robo. Huna Robo parts have bright colors so it is
appealing to children and are made of materials that are safe for children. Moreover Huna Robo also has CE certification European and KC Korea so the safety is assured.
94
Robotics Benefits In Early Childhood Development
Learning using educational robot in early childhood are in accordance to the theory of constructivism. The theory of constructivism is learning to build knowledge itself, once
digested and then be understood within the individual, and an act of the person Semiawan, 2002. Introducing robot to early childhood clasroom is well suited since the basic four tenets
of constructionism are already present in early education: learning by design, manipulating computational objects to think with, the exploration of powerful ideas, and the importance
of self-reflection Bers, Ponte, Juelich, Viera, Schenker, 2002. With educational robot children can make the robot according to their imagination and make it move or perform
certain tasks, so the the child can build his own knowledge.
The educational robot also has many benefits to early childhood development, especially in the field of cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art.
Cognitive
Cognitive development is a childs intelligence in the form of the ability to know, remember and understand the various objects. Cognitive ability can be understood as the
ability of the child to think and the ability to perform more complex reasoning and problem solving Desmita, 2009. Paiget states that cognitive development occurs when children are
constructing knowledge through active exploration and investigation of the physical and social environment in the neighborhood Catron Allen, 1999.
Educational robot Huna Robo consists of various parts that can be assembled into a robot form and each part are grouped into different colors. It can enhance childrens cognitive
such as the introduction of color, geometric shape recognition, number recognition, patterns, classifying objects and recognize differences in size, small-big, long-short.
Figure 1. Huna Robo part list
Fine Motor
Fine motor skills is an ability to coordinate the movement of the small muscles of the limbs such as fingers and eyes. Sujiono 2009 argues that the fine motor skills are
movements that involve only certain parts of the body and performed by small muscles, such as the skill to use finger hand and wrist movement.
Parts of the Huna Robo are able to combined and formed into other shapes. In melding between parts need concentration and thoroughness in order part is installed properly, it will
train the fine motor skills so the children can thrive.
95
Figure 2. Assemble Parts Example
Figure 3. Turtle Robot
Social Emotional
Social development is the ability of learning and behavior related to the individual to live as part of the group. Hurlock 1992 argues that social development as the acquisition of
the ability to behave in accordance with social demands which include: 1 learn to behave in a socially acceptable 2 plays the role of socially acceptable, and 3 demonstrate appropriate
social attitudes.
Emotion is a complex situation, there may be feelings thoughts are characterized by biological changes that arise from a persons behavior. Emotion refers to a feeling or thoughts
Typically, a biological and psychological state as well as a series of tendencies to act Goleman, 1995.
The use of educational robot Robo Huna conducted in groups, each group was given a set of parts. In the process the children will learn to socialize with friends with a group, learn
to work together, learn to respect each other, not fighting over the parts each caving and train patience and perseverance in making a robot.
Figure 4. Children in group
96
Art
Learning art is an attempt to explore the potential of children outside of cognitive abilities. Art can be used as a medium of self-expression and foster the creativity of children.
The benefits of art according to Pekerti 2008 is as a medium of self-expression, communication media, playing media and to channel the interests and talents of the child..
Robo Huna ability to be assembled in a variety of forms can be a medium of expression for children, children can form a robot according to the imagination and creativity, and can foster
a sense of confidence and pride of the robot their makes.
The steps of Learning Robotics
Figure 5 Robots
Robotics learning in early childhood should be done gradually and adapted to the childs developmental level. Learning robotics in early childhood can be divided into four
stages as follows: 1.
The parts introduction phase. At this stage the child is introduced to the parts of Huna Robo and how to unify among parts. Asked children to assemble static robot that have not
moved and adjusted to the stories that have been prepared, such as Three Little Pigs story. When finished making the robot, teachers or parents tell a story and invite children to
play a robot that has been made to fit the story.
Figure 6. Three Little Pigs and wolf
2. The motors introduction phase. At this stage children begin to introduced to the motor
and also a source of energy such as batteries. Asked children to make a robot that can move like crocodile robot, dog robot, rabbit robot and frog robot. After successfully
making the robot, children are invited to talk and discuss how the motor and energy sources works.
97
Figure 7. Bunny robot
3. The sensor introduction phase. At this stage the children are introduced to an infrared
sensor that can be used to move the robot dynamically. Asked children to create the robot that utilizes a sensor, such a train robot that can move to follow a black line line
follower, the duck robot that follows the white paper, skiing robot that can recognize the edge of the table and a the car robot that can recognize the wall. After successfully create
the robot, children are invited to talk and discuss about how the infrared sensors works.
Figure 8 Duck robot
4. The remote control introduction phase. At this stage the children are introduced with a
remote control that functions to move the robot from a distance. Asked children to make a robot that can be driven using the remote control like racing car robot, tank robot and
insect robot. After successfully create robot, children are invited to talk and discuss about how the remote control works.
98
Conclusions
Figure 9. Racing car robot
The introduction of robot technology can be done at an early age, but only as a medium of learning to improve aspects of child development, not to introduce robotic technology itself.
Aspects of child development can be enhanced through robotic technology are cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art. Robotics learning in early childhood should be done
gradually and adapted to the childs developmental level. Based on this study it should be carried out further research to measure the effectiveness of
the application of robotic technology to the development of children.
References
Bers, M. U., Ponte, I., Juelich, K., Viera, A., Schenker, J. 2002. Teachers as Designers: Integrating Robotics in Early Childhood Education.
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https:www.iso.orgobpuiiso:std:iso:8373:ed-2:v1:en Joao-Monteiro, M., Cristovao-Morgado, R., Cruz, M. G., Morgado, L. 2007. A Robot in
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Jakarta: Indeks.
99
IMPLEMENTING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DESIGN BETWEEN TAIWAN AND INDONESIA VIA ONLINE TEACHING
Yeni Rachmawati
Ph.D. Student at National Dong Hwa University,Taiwan; Instructor of Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Cheng-Hsiung Lu
University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA
Hui-Hua Chen
National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Ocih Setiasih
Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Leli Kurniawati
Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to share information about the necessity of multicultural education in Indonesia through online teaching, that held at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, and Indonesia University of
Education, Indonesia. As multicultural education will help students to create equal educational opportunities from diverse racial, ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups, one of its important goals is to help all students to
acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with people from diverse groups in order to create a civic and
moral community that works for the common good. This study has implemented
―Dick and Carey model‖ by online teaching approach. The subjects on this research are the fourth semester of undergraduate students who
are majored in Early Childhood Teacher Education at Indonesia University of Education. They are composed of one male and fourteen female students. The results may not be generalized to other teaching institutions due
to the limited numbers of the participants. This research was conducted in two public Universities in two countries. The first location is held in the Department of Curriculum Design and Human Potentials, National
Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; the second location is held in Department of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia. It was interesting that using
online teaching still could achieve good improvement, similar to traditional teaching that using
―face-to-face‖ situation. The distance between Taiwan and Indonesia is not influenced and being distraction for the learning
process; neither the limitation of media, tools and Internet connection affected as long as the teacher prepared well all of needed materials. By using Dick and Careys instructional system design, students were able to
enhance their understanding about this theme of learning. This condition showed the increase of students performance mean scores from 5.142 to 8.928 with four students able to get posttest scores 100 correct,
seven students 90 correct, two students 80 correct, and only one student 60 correct. According to the percentage of the average score of posttest, the teaching activity by using this approach has succeeded to
improve students understanding about multicultural education. In addition, the percentage of each item has increased as well. The comparison between pre and post test has shown that the lowest score on pretest is 2.0
and the highest one is 7.0. It dramatically increased on the posttest scores with the lowest score 6.0 and the highest score 10. The rising scores ranged between 2-6 scores with an average of 3.785 point. Consequently,
the online teaching by adopting Dick and Careys ISD model has been proved to be effective for improving students learning peformance.
Keywords : Multicultural education, online teaching, traditional teaching, instructional system design
A. Preface
