36
To supervise the implementation of the program needs to monitor the development of the characters, and to get an idea of the effectiveness of character development programs need
to be evaluated. The purpose of monitoring and evaluating the development of the character described Soepardi 1988: 43 as follows:
1 make observations and coaching direct enforceability of character education programs in schools; 2 obtain a quality character education in public schools; 3 the
constraints that occur in the implementation of the program and identify the problems that exist, and the subsequent search for a comprehensive solution that character education
program can be achieved, 4 collect and analyze the data found in the field to formulate recommendations regarding the improvement of the educational program character to the
front; 5 provide feedback to those who need to increase the quality of coaching materials and character-building program; and 6 assess the success of the implementation of the
guidance program of character education in schools.
Results of monitoring and evaluation can be used to improve character development programs include: design, implementation mechanisms, support facilities, human resources,
PLSBS related to character education coaching program.
E. Research Methodology
Place this study in RA Al-Amanah Buah Batu Bandung. The approach used is qualitative approach through case studies with the intention of digging the problems on
PLSBS, in order to determine whether a character based PLSBS teacher. Research carried out through the preparation phase orientation, implementation exploration and end member
check. While the data collection technique using observation, interviews, and documentation
F. Results and Discussion
1. Results
The results showed that the implementation of RA PLSBSBK in Al-Amanah is negative, among others: 1 there is a lack of analysis of needs, ideas, abilities, goals, and values that
will be developed teacher; 2 the program is less systematic and less thorough and has not been prepared based on the results of a needs analysis; 3 is still lacking guidance provided
principals to teachers; 4 the lack of an increase in discipline, motivation, responsibility, initiative and creative. While that is positive, among others: 1 decision-making is always
through consultation, 2 the relationship with the childs parents harmoniously intertwined, 3
is always trying to preserve the Sundanese culture, 4 the provision of education using the instructions of the IGRA, 5 division of tasks according to the ability of teachers, 6
increasing expertise with seminars, training and upgrading, 7 a teacher familiar with the child, 8 are loyal to the government, 9 supervision and the results are discussed with
teachers, 10 encourage the movement of garbage collected GPS.
To make improvements to the condition of RA Al-Amanah, then in this discussion, will connect the above conditions with PLSBSBK model components, namely the implementation
of PLSBSBK, preparing teachers, indicators of success PLSBSBK, PLSBSBK design, and program evaluation in RA PLSBSBK Al-Amanah City Bandung.
2. Discussion
a. Implementation Strategy PLSBSBK
PLSBSB implementation strategy, among others: 1 integrate all the ideas, opinions, and actions of teachers to the need for the implementation of PLSBSBK; 2 utilize existing
resources in the school and outside of school; 3 strengthen teachers commitment to the
37
implementation of the objectives PLSBSBK. Strategy process PLSBSBK to do, among other things: 1 create a rule in the life of the school; 2 to instill the values of Sunda to teachers;
3 mengintegritaskan Sundanese characters PLSBSBK activities; 4 The strategy process should be result oriented and lead to impacts in accordance with the goals and objectives of
the school. Strategy on the implementation process of the objectives PLSBSBK should support the school that is in accordance with the quality of the graduate school. Strategies for
quality assurance can be used to optimize the effectiveness and efficiency strategies, school productivity, and relevance to the national education goals.
b. Efforts Preparing School Personnel
The school principal should have the professional capacity building to support the implementation of PLSBSBK implementation and focuses on enhancing the effectiveness of
professional development and character. To enhance the basic capabilities required teacher leadership of the principal characters. If the above-mentioned aspects, was conducted by the
principal in his duties will be creating a teacher character lead. To that end, the principal should implement in order to create an atmosphere of social and cultural development of a
conducive school.
c. Indicators of Success
Indicators of successful implementation PLSBSBK implementation, namely: 1 input means that all teachers have had PLSBSBK readiness for implementation, and the childs
parents to participate actively provide easiness for schools in implementing PLSBSBK implementation; 2 means the process of the schools success in implementing the process
PLSBS support to education and teaching in schools by character dilandasai; 3 output means PLSBS success is evidenced by the increasing number of management achievement in school
activities dilandasai character; 4 The outcome means success PLSBS teachers can develop character.
d. Program Design
Design PLSBSBK program conducted by the school is not listed specifically in the work program clearly. Nevertheless the principal may consider the elements, namely: 1
characteristic of the thinking and acting teacher; 2 challenges teachers must develop character through PLSBSBK; 3 the need to analyze what the needs and problems of teachers
in achieving the goals of the school. Having regard to the above three elements, then PLSBSBK program design should be done by the principal, including: 1 component inputs,
processes, outputs, outcomes and goals; 2 indicators of success in implementing PLSBSBK is input and process effectiveness, process efficiency to produce output, productivity and
output in accordance with the outcome of suitability outcomes with the goal to become a teacher living habits.
Principals in implementing PLSBSBK need to consider the strength of the input means why it is important PLSBSBK implementation, while the process is the strategy, then
the results or outcomes expressed in the formation of the character of the teacher everyday life.
e. Evaluation Strategy
PLSBSBK evaluation strategy implementation, among others, are: 1 the target, the evaluation includes: activities, programs, financial management, human resource
management, systems, structures, mechanisms, procedures, efficiency, effectiveness,
38
effectiveness and feasibility; 2 objectives, including evaluation for a particular purpose, and to look for gaps that need to be fixed on something that has been set in advance; 3 focus,
including inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes; 4 the approach, including the evaluation of the quasi-formal, and decision-theoretically; 5 orientation, including proactive,
klarifikatif, interactive, monitoring and evaluation.
Objective evaluation of the implementation PLSBSBK, is: can make an assessment on the implementation of PLSBSBK implementation, predict business benefits of implementing
PLSBSBK, increase activity and find a new approach in implementing PLSBSBK implementation, develop, focus on the target and provide data on the implementation
PLSBSBK.
f. Analysis of Barriers
Results of research conducted by the research team, that barriers are often found by the principal are some teachers: 1 can not detach from outside the school social culture that
does not fit with the culture of the school, 2 have not been able to carry out the implementation as expected PLSBSBK head school; 3 can not be disciplined and
responsible in carrying out the implementation PLSBSBK; 4 have not been able to carry out the implementation of self- PLSBSBK.
G. Bibliography
Culberston. 1982
Character Education: Teaching Values for Life
. Chicago:Science Research Associates. Inc.
Depdiknas. 2010.
Buku Pedoman Pendidikan Budaya dan Karakter.
Jakarta. Fattah, Nanang. 2004. Konsep Manajemen Berbasis Sekolah MBS dan Dewan Sekolah. Bandung :
Pustaka Bani Quraisy. Gunarto. 2004.
Implementasi Pendidikan Budi Pekerti
. Jakarta : Raja Grafindo Persada.
Hidayat, Asep Saepul, 2011
Manajemen Sekolah Berbasis Karakter
. Bandung : UPI.
Saphier, Jon and King Matthew. 1985. Good Seeds Grow in Strong Cultures:
Journal on Educational
Leadership in
School Culture:E-Book
. [Online].
Tersedia: http:www.seattleschools.orgschoolsthecenterschool
. [19 April 2009]
Soepardi. 1994.
Dasar-Dasar Kepemimpinan Administrasi
.Gajah University. Press. Yogyakarta
Tilaar, H.A.R. 2002.
Pengembangan Sumberdaya Manusia dalam Era Glob
39
IMPROVING CHILD INITIATED LEARNING WITHIN GAGASCERIA CURRICULUM
Ami Aminah GagasCeria Preschool, Bandung-Indonesia
ami_blumeyahoo.com
ABSTRACT
According to Erikson‘s theories, children at 3-5 years need to begin asserting control and
power over the environment. To support that opportunities, preschool teachers have to think about their knowledge of child development and prepare the content for an intensely rich and
exciting environment that offers options for children. Effective teachers create opportunities for children to find and initiate their own learning, so they can explore and construct their
own understanding. GagasCeria Curriculum support not only developmental aspect of children but also develop concepts through involvement of high and complex play. In this
case study, the authors would like to describe how to improve scaffold the childrens learning by building this exploration for further understanding of the time or in the future at
GagasCeria preschool in Bandung
– Indonesia.
Key words: Preschool, preschool teacher, child initiate learning.
Childhood is a critical period in the growth process of physical, emotional and intellectual development of a person. This period was a golden period, where all the
foundations are built so that later he can develop all of their potential. In order to optimize the process of growth and development can take place, the proper stimulation and
developmentally appropriate is required.
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson‘s theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and
five. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction. Children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. During this stage, it is important for teacher to
encourage exploration and to help children make appropriate choices. Children have their sense of initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. Success
in this stage leads to a sense of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
However, the child is an individual with individual uniqueness. It takes foresight teachers to be able to make learning with a variety of approaches to accommodate all the
needs of the child. This can be done by making the arrangement of a good environment, provide opportunities for children to play, and gives precise instructions so that they can
practice what they learn.
What Preschool Teacher can do
As children grow and develop, they engage in different and incresingly complex types or stages to play. The ability to understand and identify the various stages of play is a valuable
tool in teachers work with children of all ages Feeney, Stephanie. et.al, 2010. In the classroom, preschool teacher can put together knowlegde of
children‘s development with the content they want to teach Diana, 2001. While the student are playing,
teacher can observe children for skills and interests. They can note the children learning styles, kinds of activities they enjoy and activities they avoid. Knowing students interests,
40
abilities and skills on the developmental continuum will help preschool teacher to differentiate for individuals and groups.
Vygotsky uses the term, Zone of Proximal Development ZPD, to describe the range of a
child‘s learning in given situation. The lower limit of the Zone represent what child can learn when workingindependently. The upper limit of the Zone represent what chidren can
learn by watching and talking to peers and teachers. With the support of others, the child organizes new information to fit with what he already knows. As a result, he can perform
skills at a higher level than he could working on his own. This prosess of building knowledge and understanding iss called scaffolding. A scaffold is a cognitive structure on which children
climb from one ZPD to the next. Feeney, Stephanie. et.al, 2010.
Practitioners may introduce children to a particular material, skill or idea. Then, over time, direct adult help will be needed less, because children become adept at this skill or area
of knowledge and can operate independently. Lindon, Jennie 2010. Children work at their own developmental level. They learn new ways to use the materials by watching others.
When the children play, they observe each other and share ideas and problem solving strategies. Skills relate to multiple objectives are addressed during the activity: patterning,
one-to-one correspondence, counting, classifying, and problem solving. When introduce a new concept, preschool teacher can help children learn new skills or
practice skills. First, teacher introduce new materials to the children, then, scaffold their learning to the next level. Example: At the beginning of learning teacher can make short
discussion to give brief introduction. Teacher models for children and observes how children imitates and using the materials. Teacher follows
children‘s lead, comments, supports and encourages children‘s efforts. After that, teacher observes how the children use the materials
and extend their learning with open ended questions why, how, I wonder what will happen if….
GagasCeria Curriculum
We believe that education should be a process that puts the child as a whole person. We also believe that every child is unique. Every child has the intelligence, learning styles and
different behaviors. Therefore, treatment and educational methods should also be tailored to each child individually and all parties must place the child as a subject of study.
Child as a subject of study should be able to enjoy the process he went through in school. This period should be a wonderful time. The period in which he found a lot of new
things, a time when he had the opportunity to freely express and explore, a time when each work and appreciated his opinion, a time when he can come in and figure out its role in this
beautiful world. This period is very important for children to realize that learning is fun and he can learn from the things he encountered, even he can learn from the mistakes he did.
GagasCeria Integrated Experiences GIE based on the principle of the ―child as a
learner,‖ which all activities integrating literacy and numeracy skills are presented through ―fun and meaningful‖ play. We guide children to ―read‖ the world through in-depth and
widely explorative experiences and to ―write‖ ideas and new knowledge gained through expressing themselves. Six themes are introduces to children within a year. Each theme is
based on the ―triangular dialogues‖ principles: science-imagination-sensitivity. We hope the learning content that represent by the themes that children learn will broaden their knowledge
of this vast and beautiful world created by God. Children will also get a variation topic of discussion so he could see the wider environment in various aspects self, natural, social, and
technological.
Our Themes :
41
Exploring Ourselves Managing Ourselves
Expressing Ourselves Identifiying Place Time
Exploring Science Technologi Concern for the Environment
The six major themes are the foundation of learning for some predefined sub-themes that will be developed in the classroom. Each theme that created must performed in
integrated, meaningful, insightful, help children learn how to learn and become a spiral curriculum.
In each year, the children will have six sub-themes that will be discussed to develop insights into the child. The selection of six sub-themes relating with content that close to the
childrens world. At the end of the school year, these sub-theme will be thoroughly evaluated, such as activities, tools materials, targets and objectives and achievements of the child
development.
Child-Initiated Learning
Child-initiated learning is a situation in which children explore and build his own understanding. The method to do that is to invite children to choose activities and the
activities they will do. They are free to use the toys materials with a variety of ways either play alone or with friends in a group, they are free to use the toys materials in various ways.
In this activity children develop concepts through involvement of high and complex play. Teachers make decisions about how to improve scaffold to build a childs learning
exploration for further understanding at the time or in the future. Using a scaffolding technique creates positive and meaningful interactions between the
child and the teacher as they work together to stretch the child‘s capacities. Scaffolding also
allows teachers to build on children‘s interests to develop their skills. Children learn most
effectively when competent adults scaffold instruction in ways that allow them to move from ―other-regulated‖ to ―self-regulated‖ activities as their attention, cognitive, language, and
motor skills mature. Effective scaffolding also requires fewer restrictions and more choices for the child as the teacher monitors behavioral and skills progress. Landry, 2005.
Teacher-Direct Learning
Teachers have an important role to develop childs thinking process. When children learn while playing, sometimes it doesn‘t give a meaningful experience. Some learning
requires clear teaching. Here, the role of teachers is to provide information on the child as an initial insight to develop their thinking. Teacher-direct learning is usually done when the
teacher teaches on matters relating to security, introducing the tool material, the concept of letters and numbers and things that happen outside of learning, like a learning moment that
needs to be explained to the child at that moment. For example, when a child is doing exploration on parts of the tree, a child finds a tree that has been cut. This is where the role of
teachers to link the concept with things found in the learning.
Child-initiated learning and teacher-direct learning involves some kind of interaction between teacher and child. In fact, life in the classroom always require some level of teacher
involvement. Child-initiated learning occurs when teachers think about the childs development and their knowledge of the content to intensely prepare a rich and exciting
environment that offers options for children. Children will learn best when the motivation comes from themselves. When teachers talk to children about what they are doing, or ask
42
questions that challenge their thinking, children lead their learning. Examples of questions that can be asked is the kind of question that can make a child think through a word, make
observations, make predictions, looking at the differences and similarities, solve problems, expand thinking, aware of the consequences, evaluate and get to know the feeling.
Teachers who are keen will know when she has to provide the scaffold in children. She will invite the child to continue to deepen thinking. When learning is meaningful to them,
then the children themselves who will find out what they want to learn. Here awakened conscious learning ability which is important for their provision. When this happens, an
effective teacher will continue to seek ways and create opportunities for children to find and initiate their own learning. The teacher can choose a learning settings based on the needs of
children and the concept or skill to be taught through individual, small group or a large group.
Group Time
Usually held at the beginning of the activity. Children are in a large group and get specific information such as: listening to stories, participate in music and movement activities and
instructions about the activity of choice.
Small-Group Time
Activities undertaken in small group instruction is usually of short duration. Teachers use the material and become a model for the child. All children have the materials to be used.
Children work appropriate level of development. Teachers observe how children use the material and expand their learning with open and closed questions or comments. Children
observe each other and exchange ideas and problem solving strategies. Skill depends on the development of the objectives during the activity.
Choice Time
Sometimes the teacher should let the children play alone or with their friends without much interference. When children are finished working or playing in one area, they free to choose
another area to play next. Teacher had prepared the area with materials that related to the theme or topic being taught. Children can choose the area that they like, such as discovery
area, toys area or library area. They should completed the task that have been given by teacher before. When the children are working or playing in the chosen area, teacher can choose 3-4
children for observation. Teacher following the children and look a little longer until they had completion their activities. In this activities teacher can learn to find the difference of how
the children are play, how the children explore, the style of play,or comment that comes out when they were playing.
Meet Bintang Class at GagasCeria Preschool Bintang class were studying about the concept of time and place. To make it more interesting,
teacher choose dinosaurs as the representation of ancient time. At the opening session teacher ask children to move and sound like dinosaurs. Then teacher turned on the music, the
dinosaurs began to walk to find food. Children plays the role seriously. They walk according with the type of dinosaurs that they chose.
Teacher had set the areas where children can choose activities to play with the settings and tool materials that previously had been designed to support the children activities. There
are two areas that are provided to children: small group and choice time. Teacher ask children to complete dinosaurs park and free to add the object in it. Previously, the teachers have been
setting up the area into Jurassic Park with dinosaurs miniature and some plastic plants. The
43
purpose of setting up is to open up insight of dinosaurs park. A series of pictures of dinosaurs park are taped to the wall so the children can easily seen it whenever they want.
At small group activities, children were invited to work making dinosaurs by using block of wood. Teacher had divide children into smaller group. It was design based on the
characteristics of the child. This time teacher expected that these groups will synergize and learn from each other, especially in terms of mutual respect and sharing with others.
The groups start to discuss their work. The group have a task make a dinosaurs that eat leaves from the tree. Trevan took the initiative looking for books to find out the types of dino.
Maybe we should draw a stegosaurus, Trevan commented when opening the book. Suddenly Aldric commented, Stegosaurus eat grass, with a picture showing it. Teacher then
showed pictures about dinosaurs based on the type of food, they finally chose to make Brontosurus. The teacher scaffold the children to find out more about their initial thoughts.
At choice area, children seems confuse about the task they should do. At this situation, prologue is important to help children understand about the rules at choice area. Teacher
invite them to make play area at dinosaurs park with the constructive toys that have been set for children activities. ―Lets create something teacher said.
Children then make some object to put in dinosaurs park. Some children built brontosaurs and velociraptor. Others make trees and grass. Rin approached box of construtive
play and start making. Teacher asked about her work. Rin said that she‘s going to make grass so dinosaurs can eat. After finishing it, Rin made brontosaurs. Teacher than said, Wow, you
have made large brontosaurs. And it can move also. How can brontosaurs gets to the park? Mika said, The gate is here. She pointed to one of the main side dinosaurs park. The gate
should also be big so the brontosaurs can get to the museum. At this moment, teacher tries to scaffold children to notice about size. Children initiate their learning and teacher try to make
children have learn.
Findings Children are exciting because they free to choose the activities, setting, materials and tools.
They initiate the learning. Teacher doesn‘t need to involved much. Their role in this area is to make the areas interesting and provocating children to learn. With several options that offer,
children can enjoy and engage without many confirmation needed. They know what to do. At this moment, teachers learn to appreciate children and learn how to respond while they
learning. There‘s a little bit difference to observed and improving children‘s learning. At the small group: see after the childs responses stimulated then scaffold. On choice time: see how
children respond when being independent. Look a little longer until the completion of the activities. Then study the difference: how the three children play, style of play, how to
explore, drawing style, and comment from children. Note the important fact.
Conclusion and Suggestion : When accompanying children,
there‘s a lot of things we can do to develop the skills of the children by describing what the children are doing, engage in conversation to encourage them
to express actions and ideas that they have and give questions to the children to provide insight into the development of children in the process learning.
Teacher should preapare the learning environment with rich and exiting area which children can have option to lead their learning. With the passage of the planning process,
mentoring and observation while children play and learn, then teachers will have enough facts to be analyzed and evaluated. It is useful to obtain information about the childs
developmental level and follow-up plan that is more specific and appropriate to the needs of
44
children. It is expected that the child will develop optimally where heshe can freely express their ideas, feelings and needs in dealing with situations and problems he had to solve next.
To make the learning related between school and home, teacher are encaurage to inform what children learns at school. Then, make a note to parents how to improve children‘s learning.
This can inspire and grow a challenge that children find at home.
REFERENCES: Dodge, Diane Trister., Colker, Laura J., Heroman, Cate. 2000.
The Creative Curriculum For Preschool
–
Fourth Edition
. Washington DC: Teaching Strategies. Feeney, Stephanie., et.al. 2006.
Who Am I In The Lives Of Children
. Canada, USA: Pearson.
Landry, Susan H 2005.
Effective Early Childhood Programs: Turning Knowledge Into Action.
Texas, USA: Texas Program for Society and Health The James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy.
Lindon, Jennie., 2010.
Child-Initiated Learning.
London: MA Education. Whitebread, David., 2001.
Teaching and Learning in the Early Years
. London and New York: Routledge Falmer.
45
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL ASSESMENT FOR PRESCHOOL
Fitri Ariyanti Abidin, Fitriani Yustikasari Lubis Faculty of Psychology, Padjadjaran University
The need of preschool education providers to evaluate aspects of child development aged preschool demand a kind of measuring instrument child development that administratively
more efficient compared with administration test existing today. The aim of this research is to develop a measuring instrument that aims to give a description of child development aged
preschool as well as detect the presence of the tendency learning disability on child. Measuring instrument is based on 53 basic learnings from Valett, R.E. Based on 10 stages of
developing measuring instrument by Crocker L Algina J, the development of the measuring instrument has been up to the phase preliminary try outs. The measuring instrument tested on
39 preschool students 17 boys and 22 girls, range from 4 years 1 month to 5 years 8 months average on 4 years 8 month. The result showed that the
test was realiable cronbach‘s alpha = 0,963. 81 of the 100 items was valid, 19 items should be revised. The rough confirmation
of the result with the teacher showed that DPAP had meet it purposes. The training to the instructor and completeness of the manual espescially for the gross motor area and sensory
motor integration area are still needed.
Keywords: Preschool, assessment, development
Introduction
A trend in the world of education is a necessity of preschool program provider to conduct a series of measurement for figuring out the potential of their students. There are
several reasons to this; the most important is to help school optimize the students‘ potential.
Other reason that developing in the world of education is to be able to detect learning disability in their students. With the increasing of cases in learning disability, the stakeholders
in education field began to feel the need for the measurement that able to evaluate aspects of child development aged preschool and to detect early learning disability.
Measurements that has grown and generally used by to preschool program provider still focused in measuring child development aged preschool related with school readiness.
Sometimes this developmental measurement is using long procedure and several check- recheck assignments. While an early detection of learning disability measurement is still less
developed. If there is any detection of learning disability measurement is for clinical importance. Therefore, this developing research aim is to answer both needs of preschool
education providers to give a description of child development aged preschool that administratively more efficient compared with administration test existing today as well as
detect the presence of the tendency learning disability on preschool child.
The Developmental and Psychoeducational Assessment for Preschool DPAP constructed upon Valett 1966 who argued that single test scores obtained from individual
measures of general intellectual abilities not enough to detect presence of the tendency learning disability on children. In order to understand children‘s potential, it needed to
diagnose the learner basic learning abilities, covering their specific strengths and weaknesses and their educational implications. Valett 1966 developing his Psychoeducational Profile of
Basic Learning Abilities. According to him:
46
„The
purpose of the Psychoeducational Profile of Basic Learning Abilities is to provide the psychologist with a developmental summary form whereby he can
integrate available
normative data
and clinical
impressions for
psychoeducational programming. The Profile can be of value as a direct report in itself, in counseling with parents, and especially as a basis for consulting with
teachers and other educators in educational planning and curriculum development. Although the Profile may find its greatest use in work with
exceptional pupils and programs, it also has relevance to the evaluation of normal children Valett 1966
‘ DPAP measuring instrument is based on 53 basic learning abilities categorized in
areas Gross Motor, Sensory Motor Integration, Auditory Perceptual Skill, Visual Perceptual Skill, Conceptual Skill, Language and Social Skill Vallet, 1969. Valett 1969 explained
further the first area Gross motor development defined as the development and awareness of large muscle activity. Due to large muscle activity, it included rolling, sitting, crawling,
walking, running, throwing, jumping, skipping, dancing, self-identification, body localization, body abstraction, muscular strength, and general physical health. Second area, sensory-motor
integration defined as the psychophysical integration of fine and gross motor activities. It included activity related with coordination between fine and gross motor such as balance and
rhythm, body-spatial organization, reaction speed-dexterity, tactile discrimination, directionally, laterality, and time orientation. Third area, perceptual-motor skills defined as
functional utilization of primary auditory, visual and visual-motor skills. The skills included auditory acuity, auditory decoding, auditory-vocal association, auditory memory, auditory
sequencing, visual acuity, visual coordination and pursuit, visual-form discrimination, visual figure-ground differentiation, visual memory, visual-motor memory, visual-motor fine muscle
coordination, visual-motor spatial-form manipulation, visual-motor speed of learning, and visual-motor integration. The next areas are higher area abilities start with the fourth area
language development, defined as the current functional stage of total psycholinguistic development. The fourth area including vocabulary, fluency and encoding, articulation, word
attack skills, reading comprehension, writing, and spelling. The fifth area conceptual skills defined as the functional level of concept attainment and general reasoning ability included
number concepts, arithmetic processes, arithmetic reasoning, general information, classification, and comprehension. Last area is social skills defined as the skills involved in
social problem solving. Social acceptance, anticipatory response, value judgment, and social maturity are included in this area.
In Developing the DPAP, researcher followed 10 stages of developing measuring instrument by Crocker L Algina J 2008, steps in test construction for subject-centered
measurement as follows: 1
Identify the primary purposes for which the test scores will be used 2
Identify behaviors that represent the construct or define the domain 3
Prepare a set of test specifications, delineating the proportion of item that should focus on each type of behavior identified in step 2
4 Construct an initial pool of items
5 Have items reviewed and revise as necessary
6 Hold preliminary item tryouts and revise as necessary
7 Field-test the item on a large sample representative of the examinee population for whom
the test intended 8
Determine statistical properties of item scores and when appropriate, eliminate items that do not meet pre-established criteria
47
9 Design and conduct reliability and validity studies for the final form of the test scores
10 Develop guidelined for administration, scoring, and interpretation of the test scores e.g.,
prepare norm tables; suggest recommended cutting scores or standards for performance, etc.
Thus, the developing of DPAP measurement is expected to be credential and beneficial for the development of preschool recruiting program and also to help detect
tendency of learning disability from early childhood.
Methods
Following ten stages of developing measuring instrument by Crocker L Algina J 2008, the process of developing the DPAP already reached the sixth stage, preliminary
tryouts. The description on each stage are as follow: in the first stage, researcher identify the primary purposes of DPAP is to get a description of child development aged preschool as
well as detect the presence of the tendency learning disability on child. Based on those purposes, researcher identify behaviors that represent the construct or define the domain. The
behaviors in DPAP consist of skills demonstrated by the children and the children responds to the assignments. For the gross motor and the sensory motor integration area, the children
should demonstrated particular action. Auditory perceptual skills and visual perceptual skills require the children to follow some instructions, some of the instruction involved paper and
pencil activities. Conceptual skill, language skill and social skill are measured by the answer
of the children‘s questions. A set of test specifications then formulated, followed by constructing an initial pool of items. The items have reviewed by two child psychologist.
There are 100 items to be used to measure 53 basic learning abilities categorized in areas Gross Motor, Sensory Motor Integration, Auditory Perceptual Skill, Visual Perceptual Skill,
Conceptual Skill, Language and Social Skill Vallet, 1969.
The objectives of preliminary item tryout are 1 testing the procedure and the setting of examination by observing the childrens‘ reaction and behavior during testing; 2 measure
the reliability of the test and reliability of each area; and 3 measure the item discriminality. Preliminary tryout was conducted to the 39 preschool students 17 boys and 22 girls with
age range from four years one month to five years eight months average on 4 years eight month. The procedures held by trained instructor, they are magister students of child clinical
psychology. The setting of examination are informal and classical, one instructor examine two children at the same time. The test held on the
children‘s own school, so the children has greater oppotunity to show their natural behaviour as well as their optimal potential. The data
was recorded not only quantitativively, but the instructor also recorded the process of students responses to the test.
Statistical analysis to measure internal consistency reliability is using Cronbach‘s
alpha, item discriminality analyzed by item-total correlation using pearson correlation.
Results and Discussion
The reliability of the DPAP is 0,963. Using criteria from Guilford 1956, the correlation showed the very high correlation or very dependable relationship. It means DPAP
is highly reliable. Item discriminality using item-total correlation found 19 items should be revised because its correlational value is below 0,3. According to Friedenberg 1995, items
that has item-total correlation below 0,3 should be eliminated and revised. It means, 81 of the
DPAP‘s items are valid. Because each area has different concept, the reliability of each area also measured. All of the areas on DPAP has realiability value ranged from 0,678
– 0,960, as shown in table 1.
48
Observation to the children‘s behavior toward the instructions procedure showed that the total time of the test was 1,5 hour
– 2 hour. The informal prosedur meet its purpose, that the children show their behaviour naturally, and perform their ability optimally. A brief
confirmation about the test result with teacher showed there are consistencies between test result and teacher evaluation of the children behavior in the class for each areas. The childrens
reported has academic problems also measured to be has a low performance on DPAP.
Training to the instructor preliminary given before the DPAP process is already suitable, although it is still needed to be evaluated and developed. The completeness of the
manual is also essential for the finishing of DPAP developing process. The training and manual espescially needed for the gross motor and sensory motor integration areas. The
observation guide for these area still need to be specified, so each instructor will do objective evaluation.
Conclusion
The process of develeopment the ―Developmental and Psychoeducational Assesment for Preschool‖ DPAP at the sixth stage showed that the test was realiable. The result showed
that DPAP had meet it purposes; give a description of child development aged preschool as well as detect the presence of the tendency learning disability on child. Some revises still
needed to the items 19 items as well as the training to the instructor and completeness of the manual espescially for the gross motor area and sensory motor integration area, so researcher
could continue the process of developing DPAP to the next step, field-test the item on a large sample representative of the examinee population for whom the test intended
References
1. Standard books
Friedenberg, L.1995,
P sychological Testing,
Allyn and Bacon, Singapore J. P, Guilford, 1956. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education3rd
Edition. Tokyo, Japan: Asian Students Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Valett, R. E. 1969. Programming Learning Disabilities. California: Fearon Publisher.
2. Periodical journals
Valett, R. 1966. A Psychoeducational Profile Of Basic Learning Abilities. Journal of School Psychology, Volume 4, Issue 2, Winter 1966, Pages 9-24
Table 1. Reliability based on Cronbach‘s α and number of items shoud be revised on each
areas of DPAP AREAS
Number of items Cronbach‘s
α Number of items
should be revised Gross Motor
26 0,850
5 Sensory Motor Integration
9 0,678
3 Auditory Perceptual Skills
9 0,817
2 Visual Perceptual Skills
16 0,678
5 Conceptual Skills
26 0,960
1 Language
7 0,757
1 Social Skills
7 0,727
2 DPAP All Areas
100 0,963
19
Quality and Human Investment in Early Childhood Education
50
51
INSIDE THE CHILDCARE CENTER: HOW TO ENSURE QUALITY CHILDCARE PRACTICES
Zahyah Hanafi, Ph.D Siti Noor Ismail, Ph.D
College of Arts and Sciences Universiti Utara Malaysia
Abstract Ensuring staff display best practices when handling children at childcare center is a task that
requires the management to consistently instil knowledge and skills on child development. This paper will unfold the initiative of a childcare manager who believes that in order to
ensure the center provides best practices to the children, a research into the level of knowledge and skill of the staff is necessary. Thus, a case study was conducted to identify the
key areas of a quality childcare centre: staff relationships with children and peers,
partnerships with families, programming and evaluation, children‟s experiences and learning, protective care and safety, health, nutrition and wellbeing, and managing to support quality. A
questionnaire which was adapted from the
Quality Improvement Accreditation System
QIAS model was administered to all staff at the center. The results revealed that there are areas that
reflect staff ability to implement what was taught. However, there are areas that need further training and guidance and there are also areas that urgently require consistent training and
monitoring. The paper ends with discussion between the researcher and the manager on ways to enhance staff development.
Keywords: Quality Improvement Accreditation System QIAS, childcare center management, quality childcare
INTRODUCTION
Research into quality of childcare center is seen as a requisite demand if practitioners and policy makers intend to ensure children are provided with a healthy environment to develop
their potentials, well-being and learning. It is also accepted as a means to improve early childhood provision for the future Sylva, Siraj-Blatchford, Taggart, Sammons, Melhuish,
Elliot Totsika, 2006. These believes were supported by arguments that when childcare providers implement quality practices in their center, it is likely to enhance
children‟s cognitive, social Burchinal Cryer, 2003 and academic development Ishimine, 2010,
increases their emotional and social skills Landry et al, 2013, and helps children to be more social and positively engaged with their peers Vandell, 2004. It also helps to provide a
foundation for their school success Shonkoff Phillips, 2000, establish a basis for skill
acquisition later in their life Heckman, 2006, decreases children‟s anxiety, and they are less likely to be placed in special education classes Committee for Economic Development, 2006.
Generally, these positive outcomes were linked to better quality programs Love et al, 2003; Peisner-Feinberg et al, 2001; Sims, Guilfoyle, Parry, 2005, quality teacher-child
interactions Kontos Wilcox-Herzog, 1997; qualified early childhood teachers Victorian
Children‟s Services Regulations, DEECD, 2009 and teacher leadership Sammors et al., 2002; Sylva et al., 2003. Thus, it can be argued that when childcare centers provide quality services
to the children this will lead to less negative behaviour and even eliminate social incompetency Howes, Phillipis, Whitebook, 1992.
52
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to identify the level of quality childcare practices in the childcare centre under investigation. Thus, identifying which of the quality areas are high,
average or low is the key concern of this study.
SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY The findings of this study will be:
a guideline to define and measure quality childcare practices by childcare providers in the center, an indicator to the strength and weakness prevalent in the childcare program that is current
being used, and a source of reference to create in-house training and professional development
Quality Childcare Center
Quality in childcare is generally accepted as having two dimensions – structural quality
e.g. childcare provider‟s level of education, experience and specialised trainingqualifications, number of children in the group, number of childcare providers in the group and process
quality e.g. staff – child interaction, language stimulation and the extent to which
relationships between adults and children are warm and supportive NICHD ECCRN, 2000. These dimensions were found to be significant aspects in childcare quality that strength in one
dimension is regarded as insufficient to foster children‟s overall development. However, for
the purpose of this study, the process quality will be the area of concern as it will help to answer the objective of this study.
Effective management is needed in every childcare center to attain the desired goals with the least expenditure of time, energy and money. Whether the operation is an agency, school,
business, or family, whether it is operated for profit or as a nonprofit basis, management is needed. One approach to assess quality management of early childcare centre that has gained
increasing popularity in Australia is The Quality Improvement and Accreditation System QIAS. This instrument is used to assess the quality pr
ocess of children‟s experiences during their stay at the centre. The items cover the following quality areas:
staff relationships with children and peers partnerships with families
programming and evaluation children‟s experiences and learning
protective care and safety health
nutrition and well-being, and managing to support quality
METHODOLOGY
This is a case study of a childcare center. This study combines both quantitative and qualitative methods. Analysis quantitative data using Statistical Package for the Social
Science SPSS version 16 was used to obtain the mean descriptive for the level of quality management practices in the childcare center under study. Interview further supported the
findings of the quantitative data. We adopted the mixed methods approach as we believed that investigating into the quality of the childcare practices using both methods would provide a
clearer picture of what the management has implemented and how much has been internalised and practiced by the childcare providers. Thus, the findings from both methods rather than
53
one alone, offer a stronger platform to inform the management on the strength and weakness of the current practices at the center. The childcare providers responded to the questionnaire
while the manager was interviewed on her management practices.
QIAS is used to gauge childcare centres in Australia and it has been reported that the Australia Quality Improvement and Accreditation System QIAS has a higher standard of
quality in formal childcare services than those reported for US and UK Harrison, 2008. Instrument: The Quality Improvement and Accreditation System QIAS. This instrument
was used to assess the quality process of the children‟s experiences during their stay at the
centre. The QIAS items were adapted to fit into the Malaysian context. The items covered the following quality areas:
Quality Area 1: staff relationships with children and peers 10 items Quality Area 2: partnerships with families 4 items
Quality Area 3: programming and evaluation 4 items Quality Area 4: children‟s experiences and learning 10 items
Quality Area 5: protective care and safety 6 items Quality Area 6: health, nutrition and well-being 8 items and
Quality Area 7: managing to support quality 5 items QIAS ratings for each quality area ranged from a score of 1= unsatisfactory, 2 =
satisfactory, 3 = good quality, 4 = high quality. However, for this study the scale was adjusted to: 1 = unsatisfactory, 2 = least satisfactory, 3 = satisfactory, 4 = highly satisfactory, to enable
the childcare providers a more comprehensible understanding of the scale. Quality area scores were combined to form an average QIAS score for each quality area. The overall quality area
ranged from average to high: 1.00-2.50 = low, 2.51-3.50 = average and 3.51-4.00 = high. The instrument reliability was high, ranging from 0.84
– 0.94. The childcare center is situated in an urban area, run by a manager, seven childcare
providers and a cook. The minimum qualification of the childcare providers is high school certificate. Their qualification varies from high school to degree holders. On the whole the
center provides childcare services to 41 children, aged 2 months to 4.5 years old.
FINDINGS
Table 1 presents ranking of the quality areas according to the mean for each quality area. Based on the analysis it was reported that the overall level of quality practices for the center
was high mean=3.68. Quality Area 6, 5, 7, 4, 2 and 1 were rated high except for Quality Area 3 which was rated average mean=3.46.
Table 1: Ranking of Quality Areas Quality Area
No. of Item Mean Value
Quality Area 6 : Health, Nutrition and Wellbeing 8
3.79 Quality Area 5 : Protective Care and Safety
6 3.76
Quality Area 7 : Managing to Support Quality 5
3.74 Quality Area 4 : Children‟s Experiences and Learning
10 3.71
Quality Area 2 : Partnerships with Families 4
3.68 Quality Area 1 : Staff Relationships with Children
Staff Relationships with Peers 7
3 3.67
3.43 Quality Area 3 : Programming and Evaluation
4 3.46
Level of quality practices 3.68
Ranking scale: 1.00-2.50 = low, 2.51-3.50 = average, 3.51-4.00 = high
54
DISCUSSION ON THE FINDINGS Quality Area 1: Staff Relationships with Children and Peers
The staff relationships with children and peers were combined but for this study we decided to separate it into two sub-areas: Staff relationships with children and Staff
relationships with peers so that we can gauge the level of specific relationships Table 1. The overall mean for Quality Area 1 in terms of the staff relationships with children and
peers was high Table 1. However, when the relationship was split between children and peers, the ratings were different. Staff Relationships with Children was high mean=3.67
while Staff Relationships with Peers was just average mean= 3.43. The high rating for staff relationships with children reflects that the childcare providers believed that they have close
relationship with the children at the center.
During the interview with the Manager, this was her response to the question on staff relationships with children:
…in order for children to learn, they need to be able to have really good … they
need to build that bond...that positive attachment with their carer
s…because if they don‟t
then they don‟t feel safe, they don‟t have that good relationship… they won‟t be
able
to explore further…there won‟t be bonding… Bowbly‟s theory of attachment…
Manager How do you build your staff relationship with children? Researcher
... we encourage bonding between carers and children … not just through
the
activities …its actually operational… you need to have that special time with
the
children… For example, when children first start… there‟s the settling period…one
pra
ctitioner will be assigned to the child… with the parents around, slowly they get
to
know each other, use to each other and so on…
Manager
Relationships will only develop when there are interactions between childcare providers and the children. This interaction may take the form of consistent inter-personal communication
between the childcare providers and the children in the center and this in turn will develop mutual understanding between them Liu-Yan, 2008. During this interaction childcare
providers may offer emotional support, reciprocal communication, and cognitive stimulation
which may act as scaffolding to enhance the child‟s learning Ainsworth, et al., 1978; Olson, Bates Bayles, 1984.
Staff Relationships with Peers: The mean for the relationship between staff and peers was 3.43 Table 1, reflecting that the childcare providers believed that their relationship with their
peers was just average. The reasons could be that the childcare providers did not communicate effectively among themselves to promote respect and they did not create a healthy working
environment to promote understanding among themselves. However, when interviewed, the Manager has this to say on the issue:
… I encouraged them to be open… I be their psychologist …
…we always have briefing…I want the staff to know what‟s happening …
parents
saying this…asking their opinion, how can we make it happen…yes… it‟s
important
they have close relationships with each other… so they can work together, help
each
other…
Manager
The manager believed staff relationships with peers is important and she has initiated several ways to ensure the relationship between the childcare providers is good. However, this was
not what the childcare providers perceived. They felt their relationship was just average. Therefore, this is the aspect that the manager needs to deal with.
55
Quality Area 2: Partnerships with Families Based on the findings, the overall mean for Quality Area 2 was high Table 1, reflecting that
the childcare providers created very good partnership with families. This strong partnership with families could have been achieved through efforts made by the Manager. The interview
revealed:
That relationship is important
especially when they‟re settling in… children
are actually observing how we are interacting with their parents and if they see parents
are trusting us they will have that trust in us too… that is why that is a sensitive period during the settling in…if this does not happen then the children will take a longer
time
to settle in…
And also information from the parents is important so that we can give the right care
for their children and also if there are little issues at all…its so important to handle
it
right…
Having the relationship is where I can call them and talk heart to heart on what
I‟m doing and from there I‟ll find out whether they‟re happy and so on… and
also
supporting the parents for example in terms of information… support or anything
that we can do Manager
The findings revealed that both the manager and the childcare providers had done well in ensuring that strong partnership exists between them and the parents.
Generally, staff and parents have similar goals and outcomes for the children. Thus, creating a strong partnership will benefit both parties. This partnership developed through
active communication and consultation between childcare providers and parents. Studies have reported that when mothers and childcare provider consistently communicate this may
increase interactions between childcare provider and the child, as well as between mother and child Owen, Ware, Barfoot, 2000. Others have stressed that such partnerships are vital to
the child‟s well-being, development and progress QIAS Quality Practices Guide, 2005, linked to the
child‟s developing more positive socialization skills Rentzou, 2011 and this communication was found to be the single factor that helps to increase parent and community
involvement in children‟s education Magelky, 1990.
Quality Area 3: Programming and Evaluation
Based on the findings, the overall mean for Quality Area 3 was average Table 1. This could be due to the childcare providers believed that the program did not reflect much of the
center‟s vision and mission and it did not really nurture each child into a successful learner. In addition, there was not much emphasis on documenting the
child‟s learning. However, the Manager has this to say about her center‟s program and evaluation:
Yes. We do. Basically, our program is learning through play. However, the day to day we teach will basically be
set…
activities will be based on six area of
learning…the
personal social emotional, the cognitive, knowledgeable understanding development and so on.
…we
have planning meeting so the teachers will give their opinion in terms of what activities that we think is suitable. once the topic is finished, we will have another
meeting and... will... to evaluate how well it went. But our evaluation I think is quite
week… …so we evaluate how well it went, what can be improved and so on and is all
written there by the practitioner and then after that is when we sit down and actually discuss
about it together.
56
The findings revealed that the childcare providers did not receive well the tasks performed by the manager on this aspect. Therefore, this is an area that the manager needs to focus on to
ensure whatever she does is being comprehend correctly. The childcare curriculum plays an important role in children‟s development. High-quality
programs leaves positive effects on children‟s brain development especially in language skills and also provide the basis for future school success Shonkoff Phillips, 2000 and this in
turn instill in children sense of perseverance and motivation in their life Heckman, 2006. Similarly, assessment is a tool necessary to gauge the progress of the child. Through
assessment childcare providers and parents will be informed of the
child‟s progress at the center Korjenevitch, 2010 and this is where improvements can be made.
Quality Area 4: Children’s Experiences and Learning
Based on the findings, the overall mean for Quality Area 4 was high Table 1. Both the childcare providers and the manager agreed that children need lots of experiences in order to
learn. This was reflected in the interview:
Good practice is about allowing the children to choose activities and encouraging them to join
the activities. If they cannot, or don‟t want to join the activities, its ok
they
can choose another one, right. Because it‟s basically maybe that activity is
very boring for
them… ….For them to understand the concept of sharing… effect on their
relationship whether
they can play together or not. We have lots of ready steady go games, turn takings and
things like that…Sometimes we talk about who is your best friend, why do you like
to be
your
friend… …we‟ll be having like the jungle walk and hide
-and-seek.
It‟s actually quite
physically
active but I don‟t think it‟s enough…
The childcare center should be a place filled with rich resources such as educational materials and equipment so as to allow children the opportunity to explore and discover while
handling them. In addition, they should be allowed to play, interact with peers as well as adults in the center so as to enable them to learn social skills, increase their language
proficiency, share ideas and relationships QIAS Report, 2008, p. 37. Therefore, childcare centers should create programs that will enrich
children‟s experiences and learning while being at the center.
Liu- Yan and Pan 2008 also stressed the role of „physical environment‟ in the childcare
center. Thus, it is a necessity to create learning corners and play materials to allow children to have the opportunity to be involved in active play and learning. Such an environment will
tend to develop children‟s cognitive competency Vandell, 2004, create positive engagement with peers and less likely to have negative peer interactions Holloway Reichart-Erickson,
1989; Wishard, Shivers, Howes, Ritchie, 2003.
Quality Area 5: Protective Care and Safety
The results showed that the overall mean for Quality Area 5 was high Table 1, reflecting the level of perception of the childcare providers towards protective care and safety
at the center was high. This area was rated second highest among the 7 quality areas. During the interview with the manager, this was what she said:
57
…or they‟re climbing stairs… making sure that there… need to be somebody
there. Not to actually like helping them because they need to have that independence, they
need to be able to do it themselves, but making sure that they are safe and if there is anything that they need to that they can act
quickly… …and
also that when anybody is coming to pick up the children and so on....if
it‟s
a stranger they
don‟t
allow that and they normally would call the parents because we have a set procedure for
that… …we
had activities where we allow the children to cut
vegetables…
but we are there holding their hands and so
on…
I know there are lots of people that will not agree with that... but this is the real world and they need that
opportunity…
Basically every morning they will do the floor
checks…
the toilets checks and things like that we do that regularly, as a matter of fact we do have that toilet check
timetable… Protective care and safety of the children should always be the interest of the manager,
childcare providers and families QIAS, 2008. Therefore, it is important that childcare providers believed that it is their responsibility to ensure the children under their care be
protected against injuries and accidents Lewis, DiLillo, Peterson, 2004; Morrongiello, Corbett, Bellissimo, 2008. However, most childcare centers tend to overlook the
occupational health and safety issues of their childcare providers. Even though there are few studies that looked into the health and safety of childcare providers but that does not mean it is
less important compared to the health and safety of children. If childcare providers experienced health and safety hazards in the childcare center this will have serious health
effects on the children under their care.
Quality Area 6: Health, Nutrition and Wellbeing
Based on the findings, the overall mean for Quality Area 6 was high Table 1. In fact, this area was rated the highest among the 7 quality areas. During the interview, the manager
stressed: …well,
we actually have a very good food menu here. And you know, at one point, I even serve and yogurt to the children. We
don‟t even serve the children fish cake,
fish balls or whatever. If we want to make fish cakes, we make the fish cakes using real
fish and fish balls and things like
that… …so
when the children arrive in the morning, first we check their body temperature, we do the body check and
let‟s
say their temperature is high, they are not allowed to be in the
centre… Well… through our activities…
through the practitioners, good practitioners will make
the children
happy… I‟m actually looking at our first aid training as well at the moment, and
although food preparation as well so that they are aware about hygiene and transmitted
diseases and things like
that… Managers as well as childcare
providers‟ knowledge and beliefs on heath, nutrition and well-being plays a vital role in ensuring children stay healthy and happy at the center. There
are providers who believed that inculcating healthy eating habits and instilling positive and
58
healthy behavior at mealtimes are among their responsibilities Moore et al., 2005; Pagnini, Wilkenfeld, Ling, Booth, Booth, 2007. Such beliefs will have positif impact on
children‟s well-being.
Children will spend hours at the center, from the time the parents drop them on the way to work and fetch them on the way home from work. Lack of knowledge on the effects of
overeating and consuming unhealth food may have negative impact on childhood dietary habits Mikkelsen Chehimi, 2007.
Quality Area 7: Managing To Support Quality Based on the findings, the overall mean for Quality Area 7 was rated high Table 1.
According to the manager: …
yes, we have our policies, on even managing
children‟s
behavior we have that. Policies on
admission, policies on sickness, polices on administration of medication, polices on our
curriculum, yes we do have
that… When asked on whether she provided the staff with written management procedures of this
taska [childcare center] Researcher, the manager responded: …Yes we do. It‟s actually written in their contract as well. It‟s attached in
their contract
. But I‟m actually reviewing it at the moment because there„s a few things
that needs to be taken out and put in.
When asked whether parents were informed of how the taska [childcare center] is managed Researcher
this was the manager‟s respond: …y
es, they are actually made aware of our policies when they are given hand book when they actually register. Not just that, on the first day of their settling in normally I
will spend time with them, talking to them to make them understand about our policies and so on. As a matter of fact, our admission form even it says that here are our
policies, and parents has to sign saying that they acknowledge that but
it‟s
probably something that needs to be reminded to them from now and then.
Thus, it is clear that efforts were made by the manager to ensure the childcare providers and the parents are aware and understand the policies and regulations set by the center. This is to
ensure all stakeholders can play a role in supporting quality practices at the center.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The study was done to gauge the levels of 7 quality areas that were proposed by QIAS as the indicators of a quality childcare center. The QIAS was used as the tool to conduct the
study as it is used by the Australian National Childcare Accreditation Council Inc. 2005 to accreditate childcare centers in Australia.
The finding reported that the center has high quality overall practices mean 3.68. However, when examined individual quality area it was found that 6 quality areas were rated
high and 1 area, Quality Area 3: Programming and Evaluation was rated average mean 3.46 by the childcare providers. Even though 6 areas were rated high but that does not mean this
59
center is above average in terms of quality. For a center to be accreditated as ―quality‖ it should have high quality practices in all the identified quality areas. Therefore, the
management should examine carefully each quality area by referring to the mean of each item in each quality area. This would clearly reflect the specific practice of the childcare providers
that needed attention so that planning can be done to ensure the center can sustain or seek to achieve higher ratings so as to hit the 4.00 mean mark. The following are the areas that were
ranked average and the manager and the researcher discussed ways to improve these areas. Below are the summary of the suggestions made.
Quality Area 1: Staff Relationships with Children and Peers: the following are the specific areas that need to be improved.
Quality Area 1 comprised 7 items for Staff Relationships with Children. Six of the items were rated high except for item 7 which was rated average. This relationship
―Staff treat all children equally‖ was perceived by the childcare providers as being average. Thus, the
manager realized there is a need to instill awareness in the staff of the positive effects of ensuring that staff should treat all children equally irrespective of their parents‟ socio-
economic status, the child‟s physic, and development. Some of the suggested positive ou
tcomes would be: when the childcare provider responds immediately to a child‟s need this will build trusts and promotes cooperation between the child and the care provider Ainsworth
et al., 1978, responsive care providers helps children to foster closer relationship with their care giver and this in turn may reduce behavioral and emotional problems Landry, 2013.
Quality Area 1 on Staff Relationships with Peers was rated average. There were 3 items with one item being rated high and the other two was rated average. The two items were:
―Staff communicate effectively among themselves to promote respect‖ and ―Staff create a healthy working environment to promote understanding among themselves‖, the manager
decides to increase activities in the center that will require teamwork and joint decision making. In addition, there should be a more open and transparent discussion on particular
classroom challenges as this may promote collaborative behavior among the childcare providers and leads to improving the quality of their practices.
The next area that was rated average was Quality Area 3: Programming and Evaluation. There were four items but only one was rated high and the other three were average. The
items were: ―The early childcare program reflects a clear statement of the centre‟s vision and mission,‖ ―Each child‟s learning is documented‖ and ―The program nurtures each child to be a
successful learner.‖ During the discussion, the manager explain that the center has its own
vision and mission however, it was not displayed nor disseminate to the staff. As such, the manager will ensure every staff and parent be given a copy of the center‟s vision and mission.
In addition, a copy will be framed on the wall in the childcare center that will be easily viewed. As for documenting each
child‟s learning, this exercise needs to be fully implemented at the center. Currently the center does
have templates on documenting each child‟s progress but it was not done on a regular basis. Therefore, there is a need to conduct in-house training on the
process of documenting children‟s learning. There is also a need to examine the program
again and ensure the center‟s mission and vision is clearly spelt clearly in the program. Finally, the program must have elements to nurture each child to be a successful learner.
The study managed to identify the level of the seven quality areas in the center. In addition, it also highlighted the exact area that needs further improvement so as to be rated
high. The discussion with the manager has further helped to identify how to enhance the childcare providers‟ quality practices.
60
REFERENCES Burchinal, M.R., Cryer, D. 2003. Diversity, child care quality and developmental
outcomes.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18,
401-426. Committee for Economic Development. 2006.
The economic promise of investing in high- quality preschool: Using early education to improve the growth and the fiscal
sustainability of states and the nation.
Washington, DC: Committee for Economic Development.
Harrison, L.J. 2008. Does child care quality matter?
Family Matters, 79,
14-25. Heckman, J.J. 2006.
Investing in disadvantaged young children is an economically efficient policy.
Paper presented at the Forum on Building the Economic Case for Investments in Preschool. httpwww.ced.orgdocsreportreport_2006prek_heckman.pdf
Herrera, M.O., Mathiesen, M.E., Merino, J.M., Recart, I. 2005. Learning contexts for young children in Chile: Process quality assessment in preschool centres.
International Journal of Early Years Education,
131, P.P.13 –27.
Howes, C., Phillips, D.A., Whitebook, M. 1992. Teacher characteristics and effective teaching in child care: Findings from the National Child Care Staffing Study.
Child and Youth Care Forum, 21
, 399-414. Ishimine, K., Wilson, R., Evans, D. 2010. Quality of Australian childcare and
children‟s social skills.
International Journal of Early Years Education,
182, P.P 159 –175.
Korjenevitch, M., Dunifon, R. 2010.
Child care center quality and child development
. Cornell Cooperative Extension: Cornell University.
Kontos, S., Wilcox-Herzog, A. 2001. How do education and experience affect teachers of young children?. Young Children, 564, 85
–91. Landry, S.H., Zucker, T.A., Taylor, H.B., Swank, P.R., Williams, J.M., Assel, M., Crawford,
A., Huang, W., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T.L., Barnes, M., Clancy-Menchetti, J., Lonigan, C.J., Phillips, B.M., Villiers, J.d., Villiers, P.d., Starkey, P., Klein, A.
2013. Enhancing early child care quality and learning for toddlers at risk: The responsive early childhood program.
Developmental Psychology
, 502, P.P. 526 –541.
Liu, Y., Pan, Y.J. 2008. Development and validation of kindergarten environment rating scale.
International Journal of Early Years Education,
162, P.P. 101 –114.
Love, J.M., Harrison, L., Sagi-Schwartz, A., van IJzendoorn, M.H., Ross, C., Ungerer, J.A., et al. 2003. Child care quality matters: How conclusions may vary with contetxt.
Child Development, 74,
1021-1033. Morrongiello, B.A., Corbett, M., Bellissimo, A. 2008. ―Do as I say, Not as I do‖: Family
influences on children‟s safety and risk behaviors.
Health Psychology
, 274, P.P. 498 –503.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. NICH ECCRN 2000. Characteristics and quality of child care for
toddlers and preschoolers.
Journal of Applied Developmental Science, 4,
116-135. Peisner-Feinberg, E.S., Burchinal, M.R., Clifford, R.M., Culkin, M.L. Howes, C., Kagan, S.L.,
Yazejian, N. 2001. The relation of preschool child-care quality to children‟s
cognitive and social developmental trajectories through second grade.
Child Development, 725,
1534-1553. Rentzou, K. 2011. Parent-caregiver relationship dyad in Greek day care centres.
International Journal of Early Years Education
, 192, P.P. 163-177. Sammons, P., Sylva, K., Melhuish, E. C., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., Elliot, K.
2002.
Measuring the impact of pre-
school on children‟s cognitive progress over
the preschool period.
Technical Paper 8a, London: Institute of Education. University of London.
61
Scarr, S., Eisenberg, M., Deater-Deckard, K. 1994. Measurement of quality in child care centers.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9,
131-151. Shonkoff, J., Phillips, D.A. Eds.. 2000.
From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Sims, M., Guilfoyle, A., Parry, T. 2005. What cortisol levels tell us about quality in child
care centres.
Australian Jurnal of Early Childhood, 302,
29-39. Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., Melhuish, E., Elliot, K., Totsika, V. 2006.
Capturing quality in early childhood through environmental ratings scales.
Childhood Research Quarterly, 21:
76-92. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., Elliot, K. 2003.
The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education EPPE Project: Findings from the pre- school period.
London, England: Institute of Education, University of London and SureStart.
Vandell, D. 2004. Early child care: The known and the unknown.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50,
387-414.
62
USING THE MANAGEMENT OF QUALITY ASSURANCE TO IMPROVE EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: STUDY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE PRACTICES IN
CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA
by. YayanTrisakti
Abstract
The study explores what beneficial of Educational Quality Assurance Mangement EQAM for improvement in Early Childhood Education. The literature review highlights the
connection between EQAM and standard improvement at school. Since the meaning of school improvement is broad, then the study focuses to process improvement covered framework,
plan, implementation and evaluation, and then make it linked to Educational Quality Assurance Management. The method employed questionnaire on Development of Early
Childhood Application. Since the aim of the study is to examine perspective and attitude of teachers and headteachers towards Quality Assurance policy application in practice in
Indonesia, then the research used qualitative data. Finally the study shows Educational Quality Assurance Management is believed providing
beneficial for Standard improvement in Early Childhood Education, however there are some aspects should be improve from Educational Quality Assurance Management itself such as
technical support. From the findings, the study suggests that developing system for fostering school to follow up action and controlling their sustainability is expected to minimized the
issues in Early Childhood Standard in Indonesia.
Introduction
Education in Indonesia is undergoing significant change. Finding solutions and developing management functions is necessary, however, exactly how to do it and how to
prepare it is problematic. I care very much about these problems, so I will consider the important vehicle of positive change in how to manage Quality Assurance, and how to use it
in order to improve the quality in education. That is why I chose Management of Quality Assurance as the medium for development.
One of the most important components in education is Quality Assurance QA, which is becoming the main educational priority in Indonesia. This is because that quality can create
an environment where educators, parents, government officials, the community, and business leaders work together to provide students with the resources Arcaro, 1995. Quality
Assurance is seen as a central element in strategies to raise standards in education. One reason is to establish specific standards and ensure these are met consistently Ellis, 1993. QA is
supported by operating organisations. The Educational Quality Assurance Centre EQAC, Ministry of Education and Culture MOEC in Republic of Indonesia is mandated to support
QA by legal decrees.
However, what is lacking is systematic management of QA, fulfilling the expectations of the quality in education, and sufficient and appropriate resources to implement its
programmes. The root of all the issues and constraints within the QA sub-sector is the relatively weak institutional capability. Although the EQAC is mandated to conduct quality
assurance programmes for Early Childhood Educationin Indonesia, it does not yet have either the trained officers and inspectors nor adequate resources, or a co-ordinating structure that
functions. Its weaknesses are exacerbated by the other education institutional constraints, such as weak institutional capability of direct responsibility to schools and the shortage of qualified
staff. As a result of these constraints upon institutional capability, other problems arise such
63
as a severely limited impact to raise standards in education. There are inefficiency and behavioural constraints.
Meanwhile, the education level in Indonesia was relatively low. This was indicated by World Human Development Indext, Indonesia is on 108th position from 187 countries
UNDP, 2014. This achievement can not be separated from the portrait of early childhood education in Indonesia as the most important and decisive part of Indonesian people. Early
childhood infant-5 years are the most critical age or the most decisive in the formation of character and personality of a person. Including the development of intelligence is almost
entirely under the age of five years. The importance of golden age that determine 80 capacity development is supposed to be achieved in early childhood 0-6 years old has not
implemented appropriately. Parents and teachers are prefer to teach reading and numerical than to build playing as core activity for early childhood learningLatief et all, 2013. It can
not take a part from qualification and competencies of teachers and education staff in Early Childhood Education ECE have not met standard yet. Continuous Professional
Development CPD of early childhood education has just achieved 118 teachers 23 from 402.493 teachers. Bachelor degree S1-D4 has just achieved by 15, 72 early childhood
education teachers Directorate of Early Childhood Education Development, 2013.
While it is possible to consider quality improvement in order to overcome poor conditions, several crucial aspects are likely to stimulate the change through using the
management of QA. The simultaneous development of these aspects will include management of QA, an analytical approach to a QA model, review of standards in education, school self-
evaluation, inspection, supervision, and improvement. This would provide a firm basis upon which to determine what strategy should be adopted, and then be reflected in implementation
practice. This planning, in turn, will be matched with standards needs and outcomes. However, this process does not just simply happen. It requires incremental progress through
internal and external analysis in support of improvement and viable change. It might, therefore, be argued that an understanding of the Management of QA can be used as a
framework for analysis and this, in turn, will meet value added with quality improvement Harris, et. al., 1997; OFSTED, 1995. It might be because raising standards in education
through QA is in line with the educational goal in Indonesia. It seems, therefore, that it is important to transform management of QA to become much more of a process of QA. Based
on the statements above, managing QA is interested to study.
This study explored, highlighted and interpreted the central principles of Quality Assurance and how they are applied in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara provinces. The
main purpose of this study then is to examine how Quality Assurance can be applied in practice in Indonesia. A further aim is to examine the sustainability of a Quality Assurance
system in Indonesia. This study also focuses on the application of a QA model appropriate with Indonesian condition. It, in turn, will make a positive contribution to raise standards in
education. The scope of this study is the management of QA which is under the co-ordination of the Local Education Authority Dinas Pendidikan KabupatenKota in Indonesia. This
includes its organisation, the QA model adopted, management, application, school self evaluation, inspection, and supervision.It focuses on the quality assurance process
framework, plan, implementation, evaluation that consists of the main components of quality assurance. The study can be used: 1 as a guide supported by a handbook for
improving Early Childhood Education; 2 as a reference for the development of management of quality assurance approach appropriate to needs, so that schools can be required to be more
dynamic and innovative in the development of the teaching and learning process; 3 as a basis for schools development plans in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia; 4
as a format for the future development of QA to ensure school improvement.
The study covered some Dist ricts‘ Kindergarten Association IGTKI in Central Java
and West Nusa Tenggara provinces because the associations are closely working where policy
64
documents, reference materials, books, data and information are available. The study persistented on kindergarten schools as a great model. The study focuses on answering
questions 1 What benefits does the MQA offer?; 2 To what extent is the MQA improve the Early Childhood Education?.
Methods What is Quality Assurance?
Oakland 1993, p.13 describes that quality assurance is broadly the preventing of quality problems through planned and systematic activities including documentation. These
will include the establishment of a good quality management system and the assessment of its adequacy, the audit of the operation of the system, and the review of the system itself. This
implies that it is the set of activities that an educational institution undertakes to ensure standards are specified and reached consistently for an education service Robinson, 1994.
This involves setting attainable standards, organising work so that they are achieved, documenting the procedures required, communicating them to all concerned, and monitoring
and reviewing the attainment of standards.
However, Lawton 2004 argues that quality assurance is a means of ensuring that effective structures and procedures are in place to monitor and improve standards in
education. This point seems to suggest that quality assurance may be carried out systematically through regular independent inspection which would raise standards of
achievement and the quality of education. It also would have an important role to play in making education more accountable to its stakeholders. This point is suggested by Perry
1
995 ‗regularity of inspection is an inescapable ingredient of using inspection as real tool to raise performance‘. Perry 1995 believes that the Local Education Authority inspectors were
neither independent nor impartial because of their closeness to the schools they inspected and the fact that they were part of the same organisation that provided the funding the inspection
process. The Framework for the Inspection of Schools and Handbook requires inspectors to evaluate four aspects of the work of schools employing the Office for Standards in Education
OFSTED model OFSTED, 1995, as follows: 1 the quality of the education provided by the school; 2 the educational standards achieved; 3 the efficiency of financial
management; and 4 the spiritual, moral, social, and cultural development of the pupils. In addition, QA procedures need to cover aspects of provision that include assessment and
management, and quality of training Teacher Training Agency, 2002. In the United Kingdom, for example, during the
1970‘s, observing and monitoring standards was commonly used, especially in connection with the work of the Assessment of Performance
Unit as claimed by Lawton and Gordon, 1993. In addition, the Government of Indonesia mandated that there should be systemic and
integrated activities by the education unit, education institutions, local government, government, and society to improve the level of intelligence of the nation through education
Ministerial Decree No. 63 of Y. 2009, hereinafter referred to as the Education Quality Assurance, has a strong legal foundation, stated in Government Regulation No. 19 of Y. 2005
on National Education Standards, chapter XV, Quality Assurance, article 91. Then, the Educational Quality Assurance programme is also equipped by the Indonesian Government
Regulation No. 32 of Y. 2013 on Amendment to Government Regulation No. 19 of Y. 2005 on National Education Standards. Based on these regulations, quality assurance of education,
particularly early childhood, has a central role in the improvement on an ongoing basis, aimed at: 1 developing a culture of quality early childhood care and maintenance; 2 dividing the
duties and responsibilities in quality assurance proportionally among the organizers of early
65
childhood education unit, District, Provincial Government and the Government; 3 setting the mold in national early childhood care and quality assurance; 4 mapping the quality of
early childhood province, district, and education unit; 5 the early childhood quality development information system that is reliable, compact, and connected between the
education unit, district, provincial government, and the government.
In mapping the condition of the education unit, specifically early childhood, has to meet four Standard of Education, consisting of: a standard level of performance development;
standard teachers and education staff; standard content, process, and evaluation; infrastructure, management, and financingthe Regulation No. 58th of Y. 2009.
Furthermore, the strategy of Quality Improvement is led to achieve World-Class Education, the vision of Awakening Cultural Quality Education Unit in implementing
National Standard Education International Competitiveness Towards Y. 2020, in the end how the quality of education in Indonesia on part with world-class quality education. To
achieve it, it should be done through the 5 stages of strategy towards improving the quality of world-class education, namely: 1 quality policy, 2 total quality development system, 3
competition conducted in multiple stages, 4 accreditation done glazed frames, 5 quality assurance system in total.
Development and implementation of Education Quality Assurance System is the embodiment of the adoption of the concept of Quality in Education, as shown in the picture.
In line with, the conceptual process of keeping quality has evolved. To begin with, the process of maintaining quality control is done through a process of quality quality control,
which is a post-production process is carried out by the quality controllers to detect or reject defective products.
Then, quality assurance performed both before and after the production process. This process aims to prevent the error from the beginning, so that the production process can then
be designed that can produce products according to specifications or standards. In education,
66
it is very possible to happen to be done through the control system, which is tight at every stage of education achievement.
In addition, total quality management, quality improvement, called an extension and development of quality assurance. Integrated quality management is an attempt to create a
quality culture, which encourages all stakeholders in the organisation to consistently satisfy customers. Consistency satisfaction of the customers is done by all related components at the
central level, regional, and education unit in accordance with the duties, functions, and capacity respectively.
What is School Improvement ?
Fullan 1991 argued that school improvement is indicated by dynamic changes and dynamic educational changes is depend on teachers think and changes towards their practice
including their beliefs and attitude. Hargreaves and Fullan 1998 support the view, that the impetus for significant change often comes from external sources. On the other hand, Stoll
and Fink 1995, as cited in Prosser 1999, p.47 argued that real improvement cannot come
from anywhere other than within educational institutions themselves‘. However, I believe that stressing from external support forces the internal support works in line to improvement. As
Fullan says that putting new policy in place is a part of the innovation process. Then I argued that Management of Quality Assurance as the policy from external support will emerge
internal support from school, then together build quality. As figured out:
Figure 1. Figure 1 shows strategies in cyle. First cycle focuses on 1 Strategy and Policy on QA for
early childhood education; 2 Capacity Building for Human Resource Development HRD; 3 Fact Finding technical assistance in local area; 4 Program Disseminated; 5 Clinical
67
Supervision and Evaluation; 6 White Paper Report of Quality Mapping; 7 Successfull Practice Disseminated of Early Childhood Educational Quality Assurance ECEQA; 8
Information and Communication Sytem Development of ECEQA.
The meeting point in the second cycle are: 3 Fact Finding technical assistance in local area; 4 Program Disseminated; 5 Clinical Supervision and Evaluation on ECEQA;
6 White Paper Report of Quality Mapping on ECEQA. Both cycles are expected to be persisted and continued improvement so the QA system for earlychildhood education can be
invented. Each step on the cycle is explained as follows:
1. ECEQA‘S Strategy and Policy
EEQA‘s Strategy and Policy purpose for setting norm, standard, procedure and criteria in early childhood education quality assurance. To accomplish this activity, it needs to involve
many parties, such as, Institution for Developing Educational Human Resource, Cultural and Educational Quality Assurance; Acreditation Board for Early Childhood, Non-Formal and
Informal‘s Education; Directorate General of Early Childhood, Non Formal and Informal Education;Research and Development Centre; Educational Quality Assurance Institution,
Development and Capacity Building Centre for Early Childhood‘s Teachers and Education
staff, and Universities. This activity carries on intensively once a month. 2.
Capacity Building for Human Resource Development This activity purposes to enhance the ability of Quality Improvement Officer team. The team
consists of Educational Quality Assurance Centre, Educational Quality Assurance Institution, Acreditation Board for Early Childhood, Non-
Formal and Informal‘s Education, Directorate General for Early Childhood, Non Formal and Informal Education, Research and
Development Centre, Educational Quality Assurance Institution, Development and Capacity Building Centre for early
Childhood‘s Teachers and Education staff and Universities. The team is supposed to be enriched by knowledges and skills. The team are expected not only to
be professional in educational problem diagnostic, but also to be able to give constructive suggetions and technical supports for implementing Quality Assurance in Early Childhood
Education. This activity is supposed to be conducted in 2 steps. Each step carries on for 7 days by 40 participants.
3. Fact Finding
The Quality Improvement Officer Team are expected to visit targeted Kindegarten. The targeted kindergartens are expected to be a central meeting for local kindergartens 10-20
schools. The team consist of 2 officers to conduct their taskforces in the targeted school. While the fact finding activity are undertaken, the team should ensure that the targeted
schools are able to perform School Self Evaluation SSE and its feedback.
4. Program Dessiminated
Kindegartens‘ representative in Finding Fact activities are expected to accomplish and disseminate to other local kindegartens more less 5 schools for 45 days. They are also
expected to construct networking among kindegartens, so they are able to actively communicate each other and share information and best practice continously and sustainly.
5. Clinical Supervision and Evaluation
Quality Improvement Officer Team are also supposed to visit targeted Kindegartens in Fact Finding activity. They not only observe targeted kindegarden‘s progress, but also collect the
68
data from disseminated kindergartens. When the program is disseminated well, the data from 100 kindegartens will be successfully collected from each targeted school. Clinical
Supervision and Evaluation will be conducted in 5 days.
6. WhitePaper Report for National Standard Achivement
The analized data of the whole activities will be constructed to be kindegartens‘ profile in
each school, local area, districts, province and national level. White papper report needs 3 session, each for 5 days.
7. Successfull Practice
This action focuses on dissemination, sharing experience and benchmarking. Dissemination intended to the result of White Paper Report for National Standard Achivement will be
presented to stakeholders. Sharing experince is expected to be conducted among kindegartens for extending targeted kindegartens. Benchmarking focuses on improving the ability and skill
of earlychildhood‘s teachers and education staff cooperated by national and international quality assurance institutions.
8. Information and Communication System Development
The whole activities on the cycle are supported by developing information and communication system for early chilhood educational quality assurance.
The Research Methodology The methodological approaches in this study is influenced by the work of Kumar 2005,
Patton 2002, Bryman 2001, Richardson 1996, Denzin and Lincoln 2000, Cohen and Manion 1994, Robson 2002, and Yin 1994. This qualitative study is evaluation research,
using a survey model on the basis of the respondents‘ answers to questionnaires. The questionnaires are related to the measurement of standards in education. Then, this study
carried out interviews with respondents to gain depth in data and information that is supported by classroom observation. Moreover, this study will be supported by sample documentations
e.g. pupils‘ development, attainment, continuous professional development, and list of pupils‘ attendance.
The Population The population in this study are headteahers, teachers, and students at kindegarten in Central
Java and West Nusa Tenggara. The schools have common characteristics, such as, public schools, civil servant status for headteachers and teachers. The MQA programmes have been
run for 8 months from February to September 2014.
The Collecting Data Collecting data carried out during the school year. This aims to obtain data and information
concerning schools‘ performance as a starting point. Data are collected through Development Instrument of ECE Application distributed to headteachers and teachers. The application
distributed to headteachers and teachers who are contributing to the teaching and learning
process. Headteachers and teachers are expected to fill in application by clicking √ at statements that have been provided. The result of the application, then, collected, processed,
and analysed. The results would be subjected in triangulation through the study of documentation and professional judgement.
69
Result and Discussion
note: SPTK : Standard for Teacher and Education Staff
SIPP : Standard for Content, Process and Assessment Sarpras
: Standard for Equipment and Facilities STTP : Standard for Student Achievement
TP1 : Inadequate
TP2 : Need Improvement
TP3 : Good
TP4 : Outstanding
The study has shown that Management of Quality Assurance indirectly has provided guidelines of reference for school improvement. Experiences from headteachers and teachers
indicates positively of MQA implementation as well as its impact into school improvement. The data begins from Central Java that have population 1520 kindegarten. It started from the
Standard for Teacher and Education Staff in Central Java. 44 of population has been outstanding of NES, 33 has met the NES and 22 population still need improvement.
Standard for Content, Process and Assessment SIIP was achieved by 40 population for outstanding, 30 for good, 20 for need improvement and the rest 10 for inadequate.
Similary, 40 population are outstanding, 30 are good, 20are
‗need improvement‘ and 10 are inadequate for Facilities Standard. The three standard gave implication for student
achivement standard, 40 from population have been over National Education Standardoutstanding, 30 met the NES and the rest 20 and 10 have been
‗ Need Improvement‘ and ‗Inadequate‘.
The data of West Nusa Tenggara is not too much different form Central Java. The population of West Nusa Tenggara is 39 kindegarten. To begin with, teachers and education
70
staff, 44 of population has been outstanding of NES, 33 has met the NES and 22 population still need improvement. The same achievement for Standard of Content, Process
and Assessment SIIP and facilities standard Sarpras, 44 for outstanding, 33 for meeting the NES good and 23 for need improvement. The theree standards gave impact
for students achievement standard 40 for outstanding, 30 for good, 20 for need improvement and 10 for inadequate.
In regard to SIIP and SARPRAS, the data report from government MOEC Report, 2013 stated that the
government‘ facilities aids for infrastructure and teaching learning is limited. In contrast, the data showed that Standard for Content, Process and Assessment
SIPP and Standard for Equipment and FacilitiesSarpras can be achieved by each 40 in Java for outstanding. In similar, SIIP and Sarpras in West Nusa Tenggara can be achieved by
each 44 for outstanding
. The pie data also showed that there was the same patern from the
result in 2 provinces. The result from standard of teachers and education staff SPTK was almost the same the result of SIIIP, SARPRAS and STTP. When SPTK was achieved by 44
for outstanding, the result in SIIP, SARPRAS and STTP is not too much different, 40 for outstanding. However, when 20 population reached
‗need improvement‘ in SPTK, the unexpected result happened in SIIP, SARPRAS and STTP. The Both data implicitly
confirmed that Standard for Teachers and Education Staff SPTK is key for others standard. The result of SIIP, SRAPRAS and SPTK is depend on how the teacher and headteacher could
achieve in SPTK. Performing a program that enhance teachers and education staff will give positive impact for others standard.Then, I conclude that conducting MQA is valuable to rise
standard of teacher and education staff,so thatit boosts rising the others standard.
The data reflected that conducting MQA into school program persuade teachers and headtechers to take their self evaluation and reflect it into some feedback recommendation in
teaching learning practice and school managing. As Fullan 2001 says that educational change depends on how teachers and headteachers think and involves changes in practices.
The MQA drived teachers and headteachers as catalyst of change, initiate to adequate of their own knowledge, skills, understanding, performance, beliefs, attitudes and values for the
purpose of changes. It conclude that MQA made teachers and headteachers as a target as expected to lead personal and group practice and recognizes that the main reasons for
producing students who can compete in national and international level derive from teachers teaching and leadership practices of what it means to be a teacher and a headteacher. In other
words, MQA is like to cover or minimize the gap in Early Childhood Education concerning the sustainability issue.
However, the data found that there is 22 of population in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara thattheir SPTK is on
‗need improvement zone. It presented destructive waves for others standard.The datasignified thatthere are some aspects that should be improved in the
MQA itself such as feedback, support in continuing professional development and monitoring of evaluation. From the findings, the study suggests that developing a system for fostering
teachers, headteachers and others education staff to take follow up action and assisting their sustainability is expected to minimize the issues in educational quality in Indonesia,
especially early childhood education.
Conclusion
“If What You Do, Does Not Bring About Improvement for Teacher. Please, Do Not
Do
It”Wright, β007.The study has shown that MQA circuitously has delivered guidelines of reference for school improvement. Experiences from teachers and headteacherssigned
positively MQA implementation as well as its impact into school improvement.Eventhough,
71
there was a little sign that there should be strengthening of MQA program in some schools. However, MQA has provided impacts for school development in Indonesia.
The positive aspect of MQA has guided to enforce teacher and education staff standards. Indirectly, it also promoted improvement for teachers and education staff; leading
teachers and headteachersto usedto feedback and educational solution recommendation in MQA as self evaluation. The impact of self evaluation has encouraged motivation and spirit
for teachers and headteachers to engage into continuing professional development and changing of practice. They retain into some innovation of their profession practice, including
how to maximize facilities and infrastructure to be engange into teaching learning practice. However, the weaknesses of MQA system indicates a resist for improvement itself. No
further framework in MQA results lead to no direction for the next step the teachers and headteachers should do. It did not give a framework of reference for school to optimize their
potential.
Finally, school improvement is not the responsibility of the teacher and headteacher only, but also of professional community, for example, other members of school, educational
authorities, supervisors, colleagues, and, in some cases, researchers also need to be involved. Reflecting from the study, there are some areas for further that I would like to recommend:
1.
Promote for evidence-based and culturally relevant frameworks, standards and practices for quality assurance.
The principal of quality assurance framework, urged by a research base are suppose to be reflected into such an evidence-based framework that requires attention to cultural context
that would reflect local factors. Without this, culture and needs may put to risk the achievement of desired outcomes in MQA.
2. Develop more appropriate supports that would ensure that quality assurance is not the
responsibility of the teacher and headteacher only, but also of boarder professional community.
The establishment of MQA is only one of the initial steps toward improving quality. There must also be an effort to ensure that tools and resources that contribute to quality
are readily available to all providers and practitioners of early care and education services. This quality support may include, but are not limited totraining and education programs
for MQA target teacher and headteacher but also for other provider such as Local Education Authority. School position in District Autonomy is under coordination of LEA.
In line of this, involving supervisor and other education staff in MQA targets will be aligned into improvement contribution.
3. Strengthen and improve the cooperative between central government and other
stakeholders of early childhood education. Promote continuing dialogues between all relevant government departments concerned
with early childhood education, and the community stakeholders to develop frameworks for quality assurance and other initiatives meant to improve quality of earlychildhood,
such as central government, local government, school and community that initiates the existing of Building Learning Community.
References: Agung, I.G.N., 1992
Social Research Method: Theory and Practise
. Jakarta: Gramedia. Arcaro, J.S. 1995
Quality in Education: An Implementation Handbook
. Florida: Lucie Press. Bryman, A. 2001
Socia l Research Methods.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cohen, L., and Manion, L., 1994
Research Methods in Education the4edn.
London: Croom Helm.
72
Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. edr 2000
Handbook of Qualitative Research the2edn
. London: SAGE.
Directorate of Early Childhood Education Development, 2013 Early Childhood Education Development Report. Jakarta: MOEC.
Ellis, R. 1993
Quality Assurance for University Teaching.
Buckingham: Open University. Education Office in District of Jakarta 2005
National Examination Results in Jakarta.
http:www.sinarharapan.co.idberita050701jab01.html 23 Aug. 05 Fullan, M., 1997
The Challenge of School Change; The Complexity of the Change Process.
Illionis: Skylight Training and Publishing. Fullan, M., 2001
The Meaning of Educational Change 3rd ed.
London: Routledge Falmer. Fullan, M., 2003
Change Forces with a Vengeance.
London: Routledge Falmer Harris, A., Bennett, N., and Preedy, M. eds. 1997
Organisational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education.
Buckingham: Open University Press. Kumar, R., 2005
Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners the2edn
. London: Sage.
Latief, Afandi, Zubaidah, and Rita, 2013 DimensiPendidikanAnakUsiaDini. Jakarta: MOEC Lawton, D. 2004
Raising Standards in Education
. Paper presented at The Workshop of Management of Quality Assurance for Raising Standards in Education. At The
Institute of Education, University of London, September 2004. Lawton, D., and Gordon. P. 1993
Dictionary of Education.
London: Hodder and Stoughton. MONE 2005
National Education Data.
Jakarta: MONE. Oakland, J.S. 1993
Total Quality Management: The Route to Improving Performance the2edn.
Oxford: Bufferworth-Heinemann. OFSTED 1995
The OFSTED Handbook.
London: HMSO. Patton, M.Q. 2002
Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methodologythe3edn.
London: SAGE
Perry, P. 1995
School Inspection: The Information of OFSTED in Brighouse
. London: Pitman Publishing.
Robinson, B. 1994
Ensuring Quality in the Planning and Development of Distance Learning Courses.
Paper Presented at the 20
th
Anniversary International Conference on Distance Learning, 20-22 September 1994. Colombia.
Richardson, J.T.E. edr 1996
Handbook of Qualitative Research for Psychology and Methods the Social Sciences.
Oxford: Blackwell. Robson, C., 2002
Real World Research the 2edn.
Oxford: Blackwell. Teacher Training Agency 2002
Qualifying to Teach Handbook of Guidance.
London: Teacher Training Agency.
UNDP, 2014
Human development Report 2014.
New York: UNDP. Wright, C., 2007
Raising Standards of Education.
London: SAGE. Yin, K.R. 1994
Case Study Research the2 edn
London: SAGE.
73
MANAGEMENT OF NONFORMAL-EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION THROUGH FORUM FOR FAMILY EMPOWERMENT IN CINTARASA VILLAGE
Iip Saripah Department of Out-of-School Education, Faculty of Education, Indonesia University of
Education, Jl. Dr Setiabudhi 229 Bandung, Indonesia, Email: iipsaripahymail.com
Abstract
Individual or group activities conducted within a community, an organisation and or an agency with the intention to achieve a certain goal are implemented under a given
management system. Managemengt of widespread nonformal-early childhood education in our communities can serve a good purpose, only if, the services provided are inline with the
public demands. In an effort to provide guidance to early childhood education units, there is need for good management. Client or consumer satisfaction in regard to the education
services provided by a given organisation can be categorised into five dimensions:
― tanggible, empathy, renponsiveness, reliabile, and assurance‖. This paper is based on the
results from a students internship programme on family empowerment conducted in Cintarasa village in Garut District which has revealed that there is need for continuous empowerment,
such a programme should atleast be conducted once in three years; and that this can only be realised if universities such as the Indonesia University of Education are to work in
collaboration with local governments.
Keywords: nonformal-early childhood education, management, empowerment and
community
A. Background
National development is basically an attempt to build a fully developed human-being and the nation at large. In other words, development does not look at human beings as mere
objects, but it positions them as active subjects who are able to determine the direction and objectives of their development. Though this is the ideal situation, one of the obstacles to
development is the lack of young people who are able to direct change and influence technological advances. This is not a simple matter, especially at a time; the country is
entering a take-off stage. However, this should not be a reason to forget the inequalities between the poor and the rich, where the rich have become more rich, whereas the poor have
become more poor.
It is true that in todays society, which is massively involved in development, there are many challenges which also continue to lead to imbalances and gaps among people. Although
several of the social problems have been successfully addressed, there are those which are consistent and they cannot be easily eliminated. For instance, unemployment and school
dropout are some of the problems which continuously affect young peoples ability and also greatily determine their future. In reference to this, students from Indonesia University of
Education conducted a thematic service learning on family empowerment with a focus on education, health, environment and economy. They foundout that thematic topics were
appropriate for community empowerment through the eradication of poverty and ignorance at the grassroot of the society.
At the district level, the implementation of community empowerment is carried out by different departments; however, their functions are less coordinated. Such a situation has led
74
to programme duplication and overlap since in most cases the goals are similar. The target of thematic student internship programme is to develop and strengthen the new and already
existing community organisations which focus on family and community empowerment. Garut is among the recent districts that have signed a memorandum of understanding with the
Indonesia University of Education in regard to community services. However, the cooperation between the university and the district ranges far back, before the early 1990s. In 2013 the
village of Cintarasa in the regency of Samarang in Garut district was chosen as a location for students thematic internship programme. Since then, the activities carried out so far, have led
to the formation of strong community organisation and among them is the forum for family empowerment POSDAYA, which has been chosen as a topic for this paper. The institutional
potential of the district and sub-districts or regencies in support for programme implementation, for example: education, health, environmental and economic have their own
limitations, among such limitation is the available human resource which should be strengthened through volunterism.
B.
Management and Quality of Nonformal-early Childhood Education Services
A good management will lead to improved quality of the nonformal early childhood education programme. Educational services comprise of basically public services. Today, a
point of discussion is the issue of quality. The concept of quality has become a measure of success in most organisations and services, including education services. This implies that
quality is a cross-cutting issue and no longer an issue of only commercial service providers, but also an important point when it comes to government service delivery. The concept in real
situation helps to enhance customer satisfaction.
According to the International Organisation for Standardisation ISO, quality is defined as the overall quality and distinctive features of a good or service offered in regard to
public demand. In most cases, the needs and expectations differ. Zeithaml, et al. 1990 are of the opinion that a customers decision to consume or not to consume a good or service are
affected by the quality of that service. The indicators used to measure customer satisfaction are divided into five dimensions, which are: tangible, empathy, responsiveness, reliability,
and assurance.
In accordance with the above opinion, good management of nonformal-early childhood education will either be able to enhance the quality of the services for the users or
will lead to consumer satisfaction after the service has been provided. To establish whether the customers expectation have been met can be obtained through surveys conducted by
organisations or individual service providers. The results of the survey are used to assess the customers perceptions on the services. This is called customer satisfaction rating. Besides, to
approve a services quality, is also conducted in two dimensions, which are assessment by the client and assessment of the services offered.
Today, society faces five bottle-necks regard to service quality. These bottle-necks have been named gaps, they include: first, the gap between customer expectations and
management perceptions. This gap arises due to misinterpretation in customer expectations. Second, the gap between management perception on customer expectations and the conditions
for service quality.
This gap occurs as a result of an error to interpret management perception appropriately in relation to public expectation as a benchmark to service quality. Third, the
gap between specific service quality and the services provide. This gap is caused by the inability of the existing human resource to meet the set service quality standards. The main
cause for this is over working or working beyond capacity. Fourth, the gap between service providers with the external informants; this gap arises because of the failure by the
75
organisation to fulfill earlier communicated promises through various external activities. Fifth, the gap between public expectations and the real quality of the services the public
receives. This is challenge shows that public expectations have not been fulfilled.
The most important factor is the improvement services by first understanding the above five gaps or the existing gaps in service delivery. Understanding the five gaps can help
to determine the level of satisfaction and customer expectations. In addition, there is need to improve the quality of communications. By improving communication, leadership qualities
will automatically improve something that can enhance quality and also will show commitment to service quality by the provider. The third gap reveals that division of labour is
close to treating the public as part of the organisation because it acts a centre for checks and balances. While the fourth gap, can facilitate the flow of inter-unit communication between
the public and the organisation. In other words, the organisation is encouraged to of course provide services that meet the needs of the community without exceeding the organisation
capacity.
The meaning of service quality can also be examined from the perspective of the customer. One of the basic concepts on customer satisfaction refers to: 1 Privileges held by
a number of products, either directly or attractive privileges that are able to meet customer satisfaction when a product is used; 2 quality consists of everything that is free of flaws or
damages. The benchmark for quality is described above; this shows that quality has always focused on the benefit or customer satisfaction. In other words, products are designed,
manufactured, and services are provided to meet customer desires. Therefore, quality refers to everything that determines customer satisfaction; a newly produced product will be described
as good, if it meets the customers wishes. In line with the above, the Minister for Administration and Beauraucratic Reforms released a decree on the quality of services. This
decree is comprised of the following:
Simplicity, this refers to the simplification of the procedures or the process and steps involved in service delivery.
Clarity and certainty, this is concerned with the procedure or the manner in which government services are provided to the public. It is applicable to both technical and
administrative services. Secure, this means that the process and procedures for public services should ensure
safety and legality. Transparency, in regard to this point, the procedures or approaches involved should
ensure transparency in services offerred. Efficience, there should be efficience in all public services, because this will either
directly or indirectly influences the results. Economical, all services offerred must be economical to the public, the service provider
must take account: the value of the goods or services offerred to the public; the conditions and ability of the customers; and consider legality of the service.
Equal Justice, the scope and the area of jurisdiction must consider government policies on operation.
Time frame, in terms of implementation, public services should be offerred based on schedule.
C. Rural Community Empowerment
Empowerment is defined differently to the different people or groups. The term depends on the perspective under which it is being examined. However, the most easily
understood is the word empowerment which originates from the word power, refering to
76
being able or or having the ability to access education, live a better economic life and participate in politics, and of course, the ability to live an independent life. There are
similarities between rural and urban empowerment. Some of the common concepts on empowerment by the government are on universal values rooted in the different cultures of a
nation. The goal for such empowerment is to change the attitudes and behavior of society. In practice, the empowerment process involves awareness creation and community participation.
The most effective and quickest approach for rural community empowerment is that which brings together the grassroot community and the government. Many attempts have
been made by the government in the empowerment of rural communities in order to empower the people by improving their economy. The efforts taken, include: the Social Safety Net
SSN,
PDM-DKE, P2MD, p3DT
,and the fishers housing restoration. However, such activities have not been able to build selfreliants communities.
The approach to community empowerment can be looked at from both the deficit and strength based perspectives. The deficit-centered approach is based on a variety of problems
and ways to handle such problems. Its success depends on clear identification and proper problem diagnosis to establish a solution.
D. Conclusion
The various changes taking place, have led to the demand for broad-based education. These demands aim to influence change and require that strategies are developed in regard to
the environment, education needs, and the communitys demands. This means that education should be able to guide strategies and policies which are aimed at overcoming changes. In
other words, each of the activity requires proper management, if the set objectives are to be achieved.
References Atmodiwirio, Soebagio. 2002. Manajemen Pelatihan. Jakarta : PT. Ardadizya.
Direktorat pembinaan pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan paud, nonformal dan informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Diklat Berjenjang Tingkat Dasar
. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal
Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidik Dan Tenaga Kependidikan Paud, Nonformal Dan Informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Penilaian Dalam Pembelajaran Anak Usia Dini.
Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal.
Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidik Dan Tenaga Kependidikan Paud, Nonformal Dan Informal. 2012.
Bahan Ajar Penilaian Dalam Pembelajaran Anak Usia Dini Etika dan Karakter
. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan anak usia dini, non formal dan informal.
Ida.2012. Pengaruh Metode Pembelajaran terhadap Peningkatan Kompetensi Pada Diklat Perencanaan Partisipasi,Bogor
Mudjiono dan Dimyati. 2002.
Belajar dan Pembelajaran
. Jakarta : PT. Rineka Cipta. Notoatmodjo, S. 1998. Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia, Edisi Revisi. Jakarta : PT.
Rineka Cipta. Sardin, 2012,
Pengaruh Persepsi Orang Tua Tentang Anak, Status Sosial Ekonomi Keluarga, Keterlibatan dalam Program Taman Kanak-Kanak, dan Pola Asuh Mendidik
Terhadap Kesiapan Bersekolah Anak Taman Kanak-Kanak Studi Kausal Pada Keluarga Yang Memiliki Anak TK Di Kabupaten Bandung,
Disertasi, Universitas Negeri Jakarta.
77
Setyawan,D. 2005. Peranan Pendidikan dan Pelatihan Dalam Meningkatkan Kompetensi Dan Kualitas Sumder Daya Manusia Aparatur. [Online]. Tersedia: www. makasar.lan.go.id
[2012, April 12]. Veithzal Rivai, 2004.
Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Untuk Perusahaan
, Jakarta, PT.Raja Grafindo Persada.
78
THE EFFECT OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN INDONESIA
Mohamad Fahmi and Putri Grace Ninibeth Jewelery S. Department of Economics, Universitas Padjadjaran
ABSTRACT
This study analyzes the effect of early childhood education on academic performance in Indonesia. We use ordinary least square method to estimate the effect of kindergarten
education TK on Indonesian language and mathematics score in primary and secondary school. We use the Indonesian Family Life Survey IFLS in 2007 to obtain a sample data of
1,013 individuals to estimate the effect of kindergarten education. We found that the
kindergarten education has a weak effect on students‘ performance. We also found that gender, location, and school type have stronger effect than kindergarten education.
Keywords : Early Childhood Education, Kindergarten, Academic Achievement, Indonesia, IFLS
JEL:
Introduction
Legislation of Indonesia Number 20 Year 2003 on National Education System defines Early Childhood Education
Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini PAUD
as an effort to provide guidance to children from birth to age six years are done through educational stimulation to
help the growth and development of the physical and spiritual so that children are ready to enter the education further. Early Childhood Education is a profitable investment for the
children. Cost-Benefit Ratio for early childhood policy indicates gains of 4 to 5 times, even higher even than the amount invested for the development of early childhood Pirozzi, 2013.
However, the benefitsthat need to be considered not only gains greater than the costs, but also early childhood education programs are able to be a better program to improve childrens
success than other programs Currie, 2001. Early childhood education can be an attractive option to avoid poverty for the childs future life Currie, 2001. Early childhood education
program also aims to support disadvantaged children have equal opportunities to start a school
with other children Ou and Reynolds, 2006. Berlinski‘s study 2006 showed the that attendance of pre primary school affect positively to grades result of Spanish Language and
Mathematics. Precompulsory and preschool education also affect the grades scores for Mathematics and Reading Goodman and Sianesi, 2005.
One article in the website of the World Bank World Bank, 2013 explained that the Indonesian government, the Dutch government, and the World Bank cooperated to conduct
programs that expand early childhood services in 2008. The World Bank conducted a study to evaluate the impact of the program on children early age. World Bank study shows that early
childhood services program provides promising benefits for children. The results of the study also showed that the group of children who attend the Education and Early Childhood
Development
Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Anak Usia Dini PPAUD
made progress in thinking and language abilities, which are two important things to be ready for school. The
girls also got great benefit from this PPAUD program. Based on research in developing countries, early childhood development to give an
increase in school enrollment and educational performance, as well as the impact on the possibility of future get to work Pirozzi, 2011. Early Childhood EducationPAUD should be
a fun place for the kids to keep them interested in learning and playing Kartika, 2013. The
79
participation of parents is also important in the development of the power of the socialization of children Ou and Reynolds, 2006. However, an expensive early childhood may be the
cause there are many children who can not attend early childhood education programs. This is due to their parents income is low. Under the 2003 Education Law Article 28, ECD can be
done anywhere, such as in a family and environment Nazarah, 2009. Early Childhood Education has a positive impact on childrens success in the future. Children
are taught as early as possible so that development is not too late. If the children are ready to learn from a very young age, then it is likely to succeed in school and their future becomes
larger UNICEF Indonesia, 2012. This study will analyze the influence of Early Childhood Education ECD against the National Test Score in Indonesia. The author makes
kindergarten education formal early childhood and Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score as the main subject of this study as the research Goodman Sianesi 2005. This
research is expected to provide a boost for the government to further support the expansion of ECD services in Indonesia, so that children of all walks of life can enjoy the benefits.
Early Childhood Education has a positive impact on childrens success in the future. Children are taught as early as possible so that development is not too late. If the children are ready to
learn from a very young age, then it is likely to succeed in school and their future becomes larger UNICEF Indonesia, 2012. This study will analyze the influence of Early Childhood
Education ECD against the National Test Score in Indonesia. The author makes kindergarten education formal early childhood and Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score as the main subject of this study as the research Goodman Sianesi 2005. This
research is expected to provide a boost for the government to further support the expansion of ECD services in Indonesia, so that children of all walks of life can enjoy the benefits.
Literature Review
Report of the National Research Council 2000 about intervention and early childhood education divided development of childrens ability to divide into three, namely
cognitive ability, school readiness, and social and feelings development Currie, 2001. Cognitive ability can be measured by the individual‘s ability to read and count. These two
things are an important part of the teaching-learning process. A survey conducted by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 1991 to teachers‘ kindergarten
found that only 65 percent of the students are ready to learn Currie, 2001. One of the things that caused this, which is only 10 percent of kindergarten teachers who think that children
need to know the alphabet Lewit Baker, 1995 in Currie, 2001. Cognitive development can also be measured by academic achievement, education participation, and school attendance of
individuals Burger, 2010. Several studies have shown a positive effect of early childhood education to these three points. One of these studies Garces, Thomas, and Currie 2000
showed that Head Start programs can significantly increase the likelihood of high school completion rate and the possibility of going to college Currie, 2001. Early childhood
education can also reduce behavior problems and improve the quality of individual education. Temple et al. 2000 observed children at the end of high school and found that the
intervention program the Chicago Child-Parent Center is able to reduce the 24 percent dropout rate Currie, 2001.
Early childhood is a period of 0 to 8 years of age, which is a time of remarkable brain growth and a foundation for further learning and development Mott, nd. According to
UNICEF Pirozzi, 2011, cognitive development, language and feelings of a child can be developed through real stimulation, like being hugged, courted, and other interactive activities
as a baby. Every child should be given a good basis from an early age, because their future will determine the future of their community, nation, and world LeMoyne, nd.
80
Parent education can be used as a measure for parents to assess the appropriate level of education for their children Goodman Sianesi, 2005. Marital status of parents can
describe how parents divide their time and income to the growth and development of their children Goodman Sianesi, 2005. Martinez-Alba 2013 has reviewed a book Promising
Practices for Fathers Involvement in Childrens Education Ho Hiatt, 2013 which this book discussed the role of the father in child development. This book showed the father and
son relationship has positive influence on childrens educational outcomes. The father considers necessary to meet the financial needs of their children. If there is no role of fathers
in the childrens lives, then the possibility of children living in poverty is greater. They also have their own expectations on their children, such as school attendance, good grades, and
profession or employment in the future. If the father can spend time with their children, it can prevent crime in adolescence.
The role of a mother in a childs life is not in doubt. However, today more and more career women who are also mothers. They often have difficulty in managing time between
caring for children and working. The women aged 25 to 54 years has been a labor in most OECD countries and the number is increasing OECD, 2011d in Burger, 2013. In countries
Europian Union members, only one out of ten couples who have young children, who still assumes that man has role to work for a living while a woman for caring for a family member
Jaumotte, 2003, in Burger, 2013.
Family socioeconomic status has an influence on childrens development. Research Carlson and Corcoran 2001 says that higher family income had a positive effect on children
which can encourage achievement and social behavior of children. Conversely, families who live in poverty lead role of parents becomes less effective and affect negatively on childrens
development Conger et al., 1992; Dodge, Petit, Bates, 1994. The level of family poverty is associated with low educational attainment and increased levels of negative intellect among
children up to adults Leone et al., 2003 in Burger, 2013. Low socioeconomic status will result children who are not ready to formal education, because of inadequate learning
environment at home Leseman, 2002 in Burger, 2013. Children who grow up in poor neighborhoods are difficult for getting adequate education institutions, so this will be a source
of low academic progress Pong Hao, 2007 in Burger, 2013.
Several previous studies have analyzed the influence of early childhood education participation on school grades and future earnings. One of the studies is Goodman and
Sianesi‘ research 2005 which analyze the effect of precompulsory and preschool education on cognitive abilities and socialization of children, as well as the acquisition of wages in
adulthood. Research of Goodman and Sianesi 2005 used data from the National Child Development Survey NCDS 1958 Research and Sianesi Goodman found that education
precompulsory affect significantly on the childs ability in reading and mathematics at age 7 years. This influence remained significant until the age of 16 years despite declining. The
study also found a significant effect of preschool education on childrens cognitive abilities at the age of 7 years, despite this is weak. This influence continued to survive until the age of 16
years.
Subsequent research by Berlinski, Galiani, and Manacorda 2008 analyze how preschool education may affect the number of years of education achieved. This study utilizes
the uniqueness of the data Uruguayan Encuesta de Hogares Continua ECH from 2001 to 2005, this study found a significant effect of preschool participation on educational years
completed since age is still very early. The study also found that individuals who did not follow the preschool often exposed dropout. In particular, children who had mothers with
lower levels of education receive greater benefits from preschool education.
The next studies explains that early childhood education is also affect positively on children who come from economically disadvantaged families. One of these studies
81
conducted by Ou and Reynolds 2006. This study aims to estimate the relationship between preschool program participation Chicago Child-Parent Center CPC with educational
attainment at age 22 years. The results of this study are CPC preschool participation effect on school completion rates are higher significantly, and the possibility of going to college is
higher. Then, another research of Ou 2005 found that the cognitive benefits alone can not last long, if it does not receive strong support from environmental factors. The findings in this
study stated that environmental factors, such as family and school, have an important role in shaping the development of the children. Research by Campbell, et al. 2002 presented the
results of their research on early childhood education in the Abecedarian project. This study found a significant effect of preschool services to the academic and intellectual levels. These
studies explain that education or intervention from an early age affects the future of children.
Method
This study uses Ordinary Least Square OLS regression that simple to calculate the magnitude of the effect of Early Childhood Education ECD against the
National Test Score
Ujian Nasional UN
school when the individual obtained at elementary and junior high level. The author divides the model based on the National
Examination, the Indonesian language and Mathematics‘s national test score, as well as based on the level of individual schools, namely elementary and junior high level.
Econometric model that is compiled in the study is as follows:
UNSD_bhs
i
=
α
+
α
1
TK
i
+
α
2
laki_laki
i
+
α
3
negeri
i
+
α
4
tinggal_kelas
i
+
α
5
bekerja
i
+
α
6
urban
i
+
α
7
menikah
i
+
α
8
ibu_SD
i
+
α
9
ibu_SMP
i
+
α
10
ibu_SMA
i
+ α
11
ibu_univ
i
+ α
12
ayah_SD
i
+ α
13
ayah_SMP
i
+
α
14
ayah_SMA
i
+ α
15
ayah_univ
i
+
ε
i
1
UNSD_mtk
i
= +
1
TK
i
+
2
laki_laki
i
+
3
negeri
i
+
4
tinggal_kelas
i
+
5
bekerja
i
+
6
urban
i
+
7
menikah
i
+
8
ibu_SD
i
+
9
ibu_SMP
i
+
10
ibu_SMA
i
+
11
ibu_univ
i
+
12
ayah_SD
i
+
13
ayah_SMP
i
+
14
ayah_SMA
i
+
15
ayah_univ
i
+ u
i
2
UNSMP _bhs
j
= +
1
TK
j
+
2
laki_laki
j
+
3
negeri
j
+
4
tinggal_kelas
j
+
5
bekerja
j
+
6
urban
j
+
7
menikah
j
+
8
ibu_SD
j
+
9
ibu_SMP
j
+
10
ibu_SMA
j
+
11
ibu_univ
j
+
12
ayah_SD
j
+
13
ayah_SMP
j
+
14
ayah_SMA
j
+
15
ayah_univ
j
+
16
UNSD_bhs
j
+
ν
j
3
UNSMP _mtk
j
= θ + θ
1
TK
j
+ θ
2
laki_laki
j
+ θ
3
negeri
j
+ θ
4
tinggal_kelas
j
+
θ
5
bekerja
j
+
θ
6
urban
j
+
θ
7
menikah
j
+
θ
8
ibu_SD
j
+
θ
9
ibu_SMP
j
+
θ
10
ibu_SMA
j
+ θ
11
ibu_univ
j
+ θ
12
ayah_SD
j
+ θ
13
ayah_SMP
j
+
θ
14
ayah_SMA
j
+ θ
15
ayah_univ
j
+ θ
16
UNSD_mtk
j
+
σ
j
4
This study only used kindergarten education as a form of formal early childhood services so that the estimation can be demonstrated clearly form early childhood services that
may affect the National Test Score, so that a given policy implications are also right on target. The author chose Indonesian Language and
Mathematics‘s score because these two subjects can describe the cognitive abilities of the individual. In addition to the variable UN SD _bhs
and UN SD _mtk, there are as many as 15 independent variables dummy is used, where the value is 0 or 1.
82
Table 1 Criterion Variables
Karakteristik Kriteria
Anak
TK ikut TK=1; tidak ikut TK=0
Jenis Kelamin laki-laki=1; perempuan=0
Bekerja sambil bekerja=1; tidak sambil bekerja=0
Karakteristik Kriteria
Keluarga
Pendidikan Ibu tingkat SD=1; tidak sekolahsekolah
khusus=0 tingkat SMP=1
tingkat SMA=1 tingkat Universitas=1
Pendidikan Ayah tingkat SD=1; tidak sekolahsekolah
khusus=0 tingkat SMP=1
tingkat SMA=1 tingkat Universitas=1
Status pernikahan menikah=1; tidak menikah=0
Letak Geografis perkotaan urban=1; pedesaan rural=0
Pendidikan
Tipe Sekolah negeri=1; lainnya=0
Pengulangan Kelas tinggal kelas=1; tidak tinggal kelas=0
Nilai Ujian Nasional UN Nilai UN Bahasa Indonesia dan Matematika
This study uses the F-statistical significance test and t-statistics to determine determine the effect of early childhood education and other factors on the score of UN. This study also
uses robust standard errors to address possible problems heteroskedastis in the econometric model. The author obtained the necessary information from the Indonesian Family Life
Survey IFLS 2007IFLS4. This study used it because it provides information like participation kindergarten education in 2007 and the score of EBTANAS UAN UN. This
study only took two subjects from EBTANAS UAN UN because the total subjects are different for each respondent. IFLS4 also provide information, such as gender, education and
type of school that followed by the individual, as well as the geographic location of residence. IFLS4 also provides information about the highest completed educational level and marital
status of individual parents. The author takes individuals aged 11 to 16 years for the study.
Result and Analysis
This study has a sample size of 1,013 individuals for elementary level and 373 individuals for junior high level before regression. The author obtained the data necessary
information from the Indonesian Family Life Survey IFLS in 2007 Here are the results of a statistical description of the independent variables used in this study,
83
Table 2 Statistics Description Elementary Level
Variabel Rata-rata
Std. Deviasi Minimum
Maksimum
TK 0.4689
0.4993 1
laki_laki 0.4857
0.5000 1
negeri 0.8973
0.3037 1
tinggal_kelas 0.1136
0.3175 1
bekerja 0.6515
0.4767 1
urban 0.5143
0.5000 1
menikah 0.8392
0.3675 1
ayah_SD 0.2521
0.4344 1
ayah_SMP 0.1419
0.3491 1
ayah_SMA 0.2485
0.4324 1
ayah_univ 0.0832
0.2764 1
ibu_SD 0.2989
0.4581 1
ibu_SMP 0.1372
0.3442 1
ibu_SMA 0.2016
0.4015 1
ibu_univ 0.0528
0.2237 1
The author uses OLS to estimate the effect of kindergarten education participation on Indonesian Language and Mathematics‘s score in primary and secondary education. The
results of the statistical description in Table 2 and Table 3 shows, in addition to the variable UN SD _bhs and UN SD _mtk, there are as many as 15 dummy variables were used. The
average value of the dummy variable indicates the percentage owned. For example, at the primary level, the average value of
―man‖ variable is 0.4857, it means the percentage of individuals that male sex was 48.57 and the remaining 51.43 are women. Another
example for the junior high level, the average value of ―‖urban‖ variable is 0.5550, it means
the percentage of individuals who live in urban areas it was 55.5 and the remaining 44.5 live in rural areas. The average value for the UNSD _lang and UNSD _math variables is
the average value of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics‘s score. The maximum score of UNSD_lang is 9.85 the highest of all the samples, while the minimum score is 4.01.
Mathematics‘s highest score at 10, while the lowest score is 2.87.
Table 3 Statistics Description Junior High Level
Variabel Rata-rata
Std. Deviasi Minimum
Maksimum
TK 0.4960
0.5007 1
laki_laki 0.5121
0.5005 1
negeri 0.7399
0.4393 1
tinggal_kelas 0.0054
0.0731 1
bekerja 0.1019
0.3029 1
urban 0.5550
0.4976 1
menikah 0.8383
0.3687 1
ayah_SD 0.3016
0.4597 1
ayah_SMP 0.1175
0.3225 1
ayah_SMA 0.2921
0.4554 1
ayah_univ 0.0762
0.2657 1
ibu_SD 0.3460
0.4765 1
84 ibu_SMP
0.1619 0.3689
1 ibu_SMA
0.1873 0.3908
1 ibu_univ
0.0476 0.2133
1 UNSD_bhs
7.094989 1.180295
4.01 9.85
UNSD_mtk 6.57962
1.447868 2.87
10
The author divides the estimation results in three equations. The first equation just make kindergarten education as the only independent variable. The second equation adds
other factors as control variables but do not include the characteristics of the parents, while the third equation consists of all control variables including parental characteristics.
The estimation results indicate that in the elementary level all independent variables significantly affect the score of the UN jointly, unless the Mathematics in equation 1. This is
evidenced by the probability of regression value Prob F that less than the significance level α. While partially, not all independent variables significantly affect the score of the UN.
Kindergarten education affect the score of Indonesian Language significantly in equation 1 and 2. Kindergarten education is able to increase the score of the Indonesian
Language by 33.78 in equation 1 and 24.37 in the second equation. Coefficient of kindergarten education decreases as the other factors being added besides education
kindergarten.
Gender has no significant effect on the acquisition score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics for elementary level. These results differ from those estimates junior high
level estimation. It also illustrates that there is no difference between the ability of elementary school students men and women.
Type of public schools affect the value of the UN Indonesian pad equations 2 and the UN Mathematics in equation 2 and 3 significantly. Individuals who enroll in public
schools received grades Indonesian UN was 23.97 higher than individuals who attend nonpublic school. Then, individuals who enroll in public schools UN Mathematics scored at
46.24 higher in equation 2 and 37.23 higher in equation 3 than individuals who attend nonpublic school.
Then, the individual who ever repeated classes scored significantly lower for both subjects in equation 2 and 3. Individuals who have ever repeated class get Indonesian
Language‘s score 33.95 lower in equation 2 and 34.12 lower in equation 3 than individuals who did not repeat class. As for the Mathematics, individuals who ever repeated
class gained 38.02 lower score in equation 2 and 43.65 lower in equation 3 rather than individuals who did not repeat class.
Geographical location of residence of individuals also affect significantly the acquisition score of the Indonesian Language. Individuals who live in urban areas obtain
Indonesian Language‘s score higher than individuals who live in rural areas. Individu who live in rural areas still use the language of a particular area, so rarely use Indonesian.
Some level of parental education on the equation 3 also significantly affect the score of the UN. Mothers highest education level that reached elementary school, high school, and
college can improve individual grades mathematics examination. This mothers education level can increase the acquisition Mathematics‘s score by of 28.16, 47.13, and 91.05
respectively. The effect of maternal education coefficient also increases as higher levels of education. Fathers highest educational level that reached college also significantly increase
the score of Indonesian Language by 49.85.
85
Table 4 Estimation Output Elementary Level
UN Bahasa Indonesia UN Matematika
Variabel 1
2 3
1 2
3 Konstanta
6.9522 6.7823 7.1105 6.5165 6.1396
6.2829 0.0555
0.1685 0.2948
0.0609 0.1992
0.3683 TK
0.3378 0.2437 0.0690
0.1437 0.1387
-0.0684 0.0795
0.0815 0.0946
0.0978 0.0993
0.1139 laki_laki
-0.0890 -0.1060
0.0599 0.0768
0.0803 0.0902
0.0974 0.1073
negeri 0.2397
0.2022 0.4624
0.3723 0.1431
0.1674 0.1729
0.2020 tinggal_kelas
-0.3395 -0.3412
-0.3802 -0.4365
0.1307 0.1440
0.1482 0.1668
bekerja -0.1410
-0.1347 -0.1003
-0.0601 0.0869
0.0999 0.1023
0.1152 urban
0.3557 0.3217
0.0986 -0.0295
0.0823 0.1002
0.1000 0.1162
menikah -0.3409
-0.2563 0.2172
0.2759 ibu_SD
-0.0414 0.2816
0.1237 0.1421
ibu_SMP 0.0000
0.2418 0.1534
0.2201 ibu_SMA
-0.0003 0.4713
0.1555 0.2091
ibu_univ 0.1976
0.9105 0.2809
0.3161 ayah_SD
0.1464 0.0270
0.1299 0.1505
ayah_SMP 0.0345
-0.0194 0.1533
0.1950 ayah_SMA
0.2604 0.1347
0.1639 0.2108
ayah_univ 0.4985
0.2252 0.2297
0.2760 N
747 746
624 744
743 625
R
2
0.0236 0.0684
0.0842 0.0030
0.0250 0.0597
Prob F 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000
0.1420 0.0100
0.0002
Note : - p0.05, p0.01, p0.001 - robust standard error
The next result is from junior high level estimation. The results of the regression estimation show all independent variables in the regression significantly affect the score of the
UN together both Indonesian Language and Mathematics subjects. Probability value of the regression results Prob F junior high schools is smaller than the significance level
α. The estimation results indicate that the kindergarten education significantly affect the
score of the Indonesian Language in equation 1 and 2 alone, and significantly affect the score of Mathematics in equation 1. Kindergarten Education increases 39.24 Indonesian
Language‘s score in equation 1 and 31.92 in equation 2. Kindergarten Education also increases the score of Mathematics 41.84 in equation 1. Coefficients of kindergarten
education variable that affect the score of the UN also decreased from equation 1 to equation 3
in junior high level estimation.
86
Gender of the individual was also a significant influence on Indonesian Language‘s
score in equation 2 and 3. Individual males scored Indonesian Language 32.83 lower in equation 2 and 37.4 lower in equation 3 rather than individual women.
Individuals who enroll in public schools scored significantly Indonesian Language higher than those who enroll in nonpublic school in equation 2 and 3. Type of public
schools providing score of Indonesian Language 37.08 higher in equation 2 and 36.12 higher in equation 3 than other types of schools.
At the junior high level estimation results, parental marital status showed a significant effect on the score of Indonesian Language. Complete parents and married affect positively
on individuals by increasing the score of the Indonesian Language by 79.51. The highest educational level of mothers who reach college are also significantly increases the Indonesian
Language‘s score of 60.3. It turns out that the score of the UN at the elementary level also affects the score of the
UN in the junior high level. Indonesian Language‘s score in elementary level can significantly increase the score of the Indonesian Language‘s score junior high level of 10.74 in equation
2. Mathematics‘s score in elementary level affect the score of Mathematics junior high level for 42.95 and 43.8 in equation 2 and 3 respectively. This is because Mathematics is
one subject that is difficult to master, so the ability to master this subject may not differ much while still in elementary school and junior high.
Table 5 Estimation Output Junior High Level
UN Bahasa Indonesia UN Matematika
Variabel 1
2 3
1 2
3 Konstanta
7.4298 6.5838 5.7034
7.1600 4.5241
5.1040 0.0817
0.4196 0.4855
0.1033 0.4602
1.1258 TK
0.3924 0.3192 0.2159
0.4184 0.1906
0.1308 0.1148
0.1342 0.1461
0.1663 0.1987
0.2140 laki_laki
-0.3283 -0.3740
-0.0849 -0.0963
0.1322 0.1456
0.1777 0.2026
negeri 0.3708
0.3612 0.0646
0.0457 0.1443
0.1536 0.2088
0.2165 bekerja
0.1129 0.2279
-0.1656 -0.2546
0.2350 0.2591
0.3072 0.3443
urban 0.0639
0.0280 -0.1421
-0.2062 0.1341
0.1461 0.1848
0.1935 menikah
0.7951 -0.7847
0.1634 1.0933
ibu_SD 0.3059
0.2671 0.1854
0.2775 ibu_SMP
0.2771 -0.0499
0.2200 0.3464
ibu_SMA 0.2552
0.0039 0.2344
0.3377 ibu_univ
0.6030 0.3147
0.3356 0.4486
ayah_SD 0.0545
0.1048 0.2017
0.2841 ayah_SMP
0.0601 0.1866
0.2767 0.3649
ayah_SMA -0.0162
0.3565 0.2259
0.3127
87 ayah_univ
0.3283 0.2436
0.3313 0.4582
UNSD_bhs 0.1074
0.0929 0.0583
0.0679 UNSD_mtk
0.4295 0.4380
0.0676 0.0733
N 324
259 222
327 263
226 R
2
0.0350 0.1121
0.1602 0.0191
0.1738 0.1990
Prob F 0.0007
0.0001 0.0000
0.0123 0.0000
0.0000
Note : - p0.05, p0.01, p0.001 - robust standard error
At the elementary level, the independent ―married‖ variable and ―working‖ variable have not a significant influence on the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics. As
for the junior high level, the ―working‖ and ―urban‖ variable do not affect the score of
Indonesian Language and Mathematics significantly. At the junior level, ―repetition‖ variable not included in the regression because the individual who ever repeated classes only two
people, so it is less valid to be included in the regression.
Kindergarten education affect the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics if all other factors that may be influence too was not added in the regression. This causes the
effect of preschool education on the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics in equation 1 and 2 for primary and secondary education to be invalid or biased. The low
value of R
2
for each equation for the both level schools also suggests that the effect of kindergarten education will not be valid if the other factors are not added in the regression.
Kindergarten education variable coefficients also decreased from equation 1 to equation 3 for the both level schools.
Conclusion
Based on the research that has been presented in previous chapters, the author can take a few conclusions. The results of this study indicate that kindergarten education TK affect
on the score of Indonesian Language and Mathematics National Test Score significantly when all other factors are not added in the regression. Kindergarten education is no longer
significant when other factors added to the regression, especially the factors derived from the characteristics of the parents. This causes the effect of kindergarten education to be invalid or
biased. The results of the study authors also showed that the mothers education has a significant effect on the acquisition score of the Mathematics at elementary level. It means the
mother has an important role in childrens academic grades since elementary school, especially for subjects that are difficult to master. Not only the mothers education, the results
of this study also shows the influence of higher education owned by a father against the score of Indonesian Language in elementary level. Marital status of parents affects the acquisition
score of the UN only in junior high level. This may be caused by psychological factors have a child who has a more mature knowledge of the condition of the parents during old teenager.
Several other factors also significantly affect the score of the Indonesian Language and Mathematics elementary and junior high levels. Neighborhood individuals residing in urban
areas significantly influence the score of the UN elementary level. Types of schools followed a significant effect on the score of Mathematics in elementary level and Indonesian Language
in junior high level. The problem repetition class is also associated with a significant effect on the score of Indonesian Language and Mathematics.
Early Childhood Education issues that expensive or lack of qualified educators and interactive with children can be a cause of early childhood influences on achievement in
school becomes less than the maximum for the children. It can be used as the subject of
88
further research on early childhood education. Early Childhood Education can be a means for children to train the ability to think and read as a self preparation before entering into formal
education. Early Childhood Education requires that funds must be spent by the parents. This needs to be considered for the government to issue a policy, such as grants or tax reductions
for early childhood services Burger, 2010b, to support the expansion of early childhood programs. The government can co-founded institutions of early childhood education with a
low cost or free, but has quality educators so that more children get the opportunity to acquire education praformal, learn while playing, which is a positive impact on their future academic
achievement.
The study also found that in addition to preschool education, other factors influence the individual academic grades. The government needs to encourage outreach to the parents
that the parents need to spend time with their children, especially when learning. Collaboration between teachers in the school and parents is important to monitor the academic
progress of children and control their behavior so as to reduce problems such as repeat classes or dropout. The government also needs to pay attention to the quality of education in rural
areas. Schools in rural areas requires a qualified teaching staff and better facilities in order to bring out children that can be competent with children who attend school in urban areas.
References
Berlinski, S., Galiani, S., Manacorda, M. 2008. Giving Children a Better Start: Preschool Attendance and School-Age Profiles.
Journal of Public Economics
,
92
5-6, 1416 –1440.
Burger, K. 2010. How does early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for chil dren
from different social backgrounds.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25
, 140 –165.
Burger, K. 2013.
Early Childhood Care and Education and Equality of Opportunity
. Sion, Switzerland: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. doi:10.1007978-3-658-01212-0
Campbell, F. A., Ramey, C. T., Pungello, E., Sparling, J., Miller-Johnson, S. 2002. Early Childhood Education: Young Adult Outcomes from The Abecedarian Project.
Applied Developmental Science
,
6
1, 42 –57.
Carlson, M. J., Corcoran, M. E. 2001. Family Structure and Children‘s Behavioral and
Cognitive Outcomes.
Journal of Marriage and Family
,
63
, 779. Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., J., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B.
1992. A Family Process Model of Economic Hardship and Adjustment of Early Adolescent Boys.
Child Development
,
63
, 526 –541.
Currie, J. 2001. Early Childhood Education Programs.
Journal of Economic Perspectives
,
15
, 213 –238.
Dirjen PAUDNI. 2011. Kerangka Besar Pembangunan PAUD Indonesia Periode 2011-2025. Dodge, K., Petit, G., Bates, J. 1994. Socialization Mediators of The Relation Between
Sosioeconomic Status and Child Conduct Problems.
Child Development
,
65
, 649 –665.
Garces, E., Thomas, D., Currie, J. 2000. Longer-Term Effects of Head Start. Goodman, A., Sianesi, B. 2005. Early Education and
Children‘s Outcomes: How Long Do the Impacts Last?
Fiscal Studies
,
26
4, 513 –548.
Ho, H.-Z., Hiatt-Michael, D. 2013.
Promising Practices for
Fathers‟
Involvement in Childrens Education
. NC Charlotte: Information Age. Jaumotte, F. 2003. Labour force participation of women: Empirical evidence on the role of
policy and other determinants in OECD countries.
OECD Economic Studies, 2
37, 52 –
108. Kartika, U. 2013. Perlukah Anak Diikutkan PAUD?
KOMPAS
. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from
http:edukasi.kompas.comread2013052209232855Perlukah.Anak.Diikutkan.PAUD.
89
LeMoyne. n.d.. Early Childhood : Introduction.
UNICEF
. Retrieved August 25, 2014, from http:www.unicef.orgearlychildhoodindex_3870.htmlhttp:www.unicef.orgearlychildh
oodindex_3870.html Leone, P. E., Christle, C. A., Nelson, M., Skiba, R., Frey, A., Jolivette, K. 2003.
School failure, race, and disability: Promoting positive outcomes, decreasing vulnerability for
involvement with the juvenile delinquency system.
Retrieved June 02, 2011, from www.edjj.orgPublicationslistleone_et_al-2003.pdf.
Leseman, P. P. M. 2002.
Early childhood education and care for children from low-income or minority backgrounds
Paper for discussion at the OECD Oslo workshop, June 6-7. Oslo: OECD.
Lewit, E., Baker, L. 1995. School Readiness.
The Future of Children
,
52
, 128 – 39.
Martinez-Alba, G. 2013. Book Review : Promising Practices for Fathers‘ Involvement in
Childrens Education.
School Community Journal
,
232
. Mott, J. n.d.. Early Childhood Care and Education.
UNESCO
. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from
http:www.unesco.orgneweneducationthemesstrengthening-education- systemsearly-childhood
Nachrowi, N. D., Usman, H. 2006.
P endekatan opuler dan Praktis Ekonometrika Untuk Analisis Ekonomi dan Keuangan
. Jakarta: Lembaga Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi Indonesia.
National Research Council and Institutes of Medicine. 2000.
Early Childhood Intervention: Views from the Field
. Shonkoff, Jack, Deborah Phil-lips, and Bonnie Keilty, eds. National Academy Press, Washington D.C.
Nazarah, T.
2009. PAUD
MURAH, MUNGKINKAH
? Retrieved
from http:www.bppaudnireg1.combuletinread.php?id=76dir=1idStatus=0
OECD 2011d. Labour force statistics by sex and age - indicators. Paris: OECD. Retrieved April 10, 2011, from from stats.oecd.org.
Ou, S. R. 2005. Pathways of Long-Term Effects of an Early Intervention Program on Educational Attainment: Findings from The Chicago Longitudinal Study.
Applied Developmental Psychology
,
26
, 578 –611.
Ou, S. R., Reynolds, A. J. 2006. Early Childhood Intervention and Educational Attainment: Age 22 Findings from The Chicago Longitudinal Study.
Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk JESP AR
,
11
2, 175 –198.
Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Nomor 58 Tahun 2009 Tentang Standar Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini
Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 17 Tahun 2010 Tentang Pengelolaan dan Penyelenggaraan Pendidikan
Pirozzi. 2011. Early Childhood Education and School Readiness.
UNICEF
. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http:www.unicef.orgeducationbege_61627.html
Pirozzi. 2013. Why Early Childhood Development?
UNICEF
. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http:www.unicef.orgearlychildhoodindex_40748.html
Pong, S. l., Hao, L. 2007. Neighborhood and School Factors in the School Performance of Immigrants Children.
International Migration Review, 41
1, 206 –241.
Teaching, C. F. for the A. of. 1991. National Survey of Kindergarten Teachers. Menlo Park: CA.
Temple, J., Reynolds, A., Miedel, W. 2000. Can Early Intervention Prevent High School Dropout?
Urban Affairs
,
35:1
, 31 –56.
Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 Tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional UNICEF Indonesia. 2012. Pendidikan Pengembangan Anak Usia Dini. Jakarta: UNICEF
Indonesia.
90
World Bank. 2013. Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Anak Usia Dini di Desa-desa di Indonesia: Landasan Kokoh, Hari Esok Cerah.
World Bank
. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from
http:www.worldbank.orginnewsfeature20130903Early-Childhood- Education-and-Development-in-Poor-Villages-of-Indonesia-Strong-Foundations-Later-
Success
Information, Communication and Technology ICT in Early Childhood Education
92
93
ROBOTICS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Yudianto Sujana Program Studi PG-PAUD, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta
Email: yudianto.sujanagmail.com
Abstract: This article presents the robotics technology and the benefits on early childhood development. Robotics technology can help children to think creatively and systematically,
learn to work together, problem solving and improve fine motor skills. The use of robotics in early childhood development is also very suitable to constructivism theory which states that
learning is to build knowledge of the self. The robot that used is Huna robotic education kit that is suitable for children because it can be assembled into a variety of shapes and are
made of materials that are safe for children. This article also describes the steps in introducing robotics technology to early childhood.
Keywords: robotics, early childhood development, educational robotics kit
Introduction
Robotic technology is one of the very rapid development of technology, including in Indonesia. For common people the robot is sensed as a machine that is made up of metals and
shaped like a human or animal that can move and do activities such as living creatures. This is reasonable due to the lack of education about robots in Indonesia, the robot knows only
through robot-themed films in the form of humans or animals. The robot itself has long been used in industry to increase productivity of work. Many jobs are less suitable if done by
humans as a job that needs a high level of accuracy and high risk jobs can be replaced by robots.
The word robot comes from the Czech language robota meaning workers. The word robot was first used in a play called Rossums Universal Robots in 1921 to refer to a
machine that can do the work of humans automatically. While the definition of a robot according to the International Organization for Standardization is an automatically
controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, the which may be either fixed in place or mobile foruse in industrial automation
applications. ISO, 2012.
The use of robots today not only limited to the needs of work, but the robot can also be used as a medium of learning, which is called the educational robot. As the name implies,
educational robot is a robot which is used as a medium of learning, because through educational robots we can learn a variety of disciplines such as mathematics, science, ICT
and others. Educational robot can be assembled into a variety of shapes and can be programmed to perform a variety of movements and work, so that it can increase creativity.
Various types of educational robots can be met in the market such as Roborobo, NXT, Lego, Fishertecnik, i-Robo, Robo Kai, Polulu, and Huna Robo.
The use of educational robot as a learning medium can be initiated at an early age. In early childhood, educational robot utilized as a means to improve aspects of child
development such as cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art. One type of robot that is suitable for use in early childhood is Huna Robo. Huna Robo parts have bright colors so it is
appealing to children and are made of materials that are safe for children. Moreover Huna Robo also has CE certification European and KC Korea so the safety is assured.
94
Robotics Benefits In Early Childhood Development
Learning using educational robot in early childhood are in accordance to the theory of constructivism. The theory of constructivism is learning to build knowledge itself, once
digested and then be understood within the individual, and an act of the person Semiawan, 2002. Introducing robot to early childhood clasroom is well suited since the basic four tenets
of constructionism are already present in early education: learning by design, manipulating computational objects to think with, the exploration of powerful ideas, and the importance
of self-reflection Bers, Ponte, Juelich, Viera, Schenker, 2002. With educational robot children can make the robot according to their imagination and make it move or perform
certain tasks, so the the child can build his own knowledge.
The educational robot also has many benefits to early childhood development, especially in the field of cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art.
Cognitive
Cognitive development is a childs intelligence in the form of the ability to know, remember and understand the various objects. Cognitive ability can be understood as the
ability of the child to think and the ability to perform more complex reasoning and problem solving Desmita, 2009. Paiget states that cognitive development occurs when children are
constructing knowledge through active exploration and investigation of the physical and social environment in the neighborhood Catron Allen, 1999.
Educational robot Huna Robo consists of various parts that can be assembled into a robot form and each part are grouped into different colors. It can enhance childrens cognitive
such as the introduction of color, geometric shape recognition, number recognition, patterns, classifying objects and recognize differences in size, small-big, long-short.
Figure 1. Huna Robo part list
Fine Motor
Fine motor skills is an ability to coordinate the movement of the small muscles of the limbs such as fingers and eyes. Sujiono 2009 argues that the fine motor skills are
movements that involve only certain parts of the body and performed by small muscles, such as the skill to use finger hand and wrist movement.
Parts of the Huna Robo are able to combined and formed into other shapes. In melding between parts need concentration and thoroughness in order part is installed properly, it will
train the fine motor skills so the children can thrive.
95
Figure 2. Assemble Parts Example
Figure 3. Turtle Robot
Social Emotional
Social development is the ability of learning and behavior related to the individual to live as part of the group. Hurlock 1992 argues that social development as the acquisition of
the ability to behave in accordance with social demands which include: 1 learn to behave in a socially acceptable 2 plays the role of socially acceptable, and 3 demonstrate appropriate
social attitudes.
Emotion is a complex situation, there may be feelings thoughts are characterized by biological changes that arise from a persons behavior. Emotion refers to a feeling or thoughts
Typically, a biological and psychological state as well as a series of tendencies to act Goleman, 1995.
The use of educational robot Robo Huna conducted in groups, each group was given a set of parts. In the process the children will learn to socialize with friends with a group, learn
to work together, learn to respect each other, not fighting over the parts each caving and train patience and perseverance in making a robot.
Figure 4. Children in group
96
Art
Learning art is an attempt to explore the potential of children outside of cognitive abilities. Art can be used as a medium of self-expression and foster the creativity of children.
The benefits of art according to Pekerti 2008 is as a medium of self-expression, communication media, playing media and to channel the interests and talents of the child..
Robo Huna ability to be assembled in a variety of forms can be a medium of expression for children, children can form a robot according to the imagination and creativity, and can foster
a sense of confidence and pride of the robot their makes.
The steps of Learning Robotics
Figure 5 Robots
Robotics learning in early childhood should be done gradually and adapted to the childs developmental level. Learning robotics in early childhood can be divided into four
stages as follows: 1.
The parts introduction phase. At this stage the child is introduced to the parts of Huna Robo and how to unify among parts. Asked children to assemble static robot that have not
moved and adjusted to the stories that have been prepared, such as Three Little Pigs story. When finished making the robot, teachers or parents tell a story and invite children to
play a robot that has been made to fit the story.
Figure 6. Three Little Pigs and wolf
2. The motors introduction phase. At this stage children begin to introduced to the motor
and also a source of energy such as batteries. Asked children to make a robot that can move like crocodile robot, dog robot, rabbit robot and frog robot. After successfully
making the robot, children are invited to talk and discuss how the motor and energy sources works.
97
Figure 7. Bunny robot
3. The sensor introduction phase. At this stage the children are introduced to an infrared
sensor that can be used to move the robot dynamically. Asked children to create the robot that utilizes a sensor, such a train robot that can move to follow a black line line
follower, the duck robot that follows the white paper, skiing robot that can recognize the edge of the table and a the car robot that can recognize the wall. After successfully create
the robot, children are invited to talk and discuss about how the infrared sensors works.
Figure 8 Duck robot
4. The remote control introduction phase. At this stage the children are introduced with a
remote control that functions to move the robot from a distance. Asked children to make a robot that can be driven using the remote control like racing car robot, tank robot and
insect robot. After successfully create robot, children are invited to talk and discuss about how the remote control works.
98
Conclusions
Figure 9. Racing car robot
The introduction of robot technology can be done at an early age, but only as a medium of learning to improve aspects of child development, not to introduce robotic technology itself.
Aspects of child development can be enhanced through robotic technology are cognitive, fine motor, social, emotional and art. Robotics learning in early childhood should be done
gradually and adapted to the childs developmental level. Based on this study it should be carried out further research to measure the effectiveness of
the application of robotic technology to the development of children.
References
Bers, M. U., Ponte, I., Juelich, K., Viera, A., Schenker, J. 2002. Teachers as Designers: Integrating Robotics in Early Childhood Education.
Information Technology in Childhood Education
, 123-145. Bers, M. U., Seddighin, S., Sullivan, A. 2013. Ready for Robotics: Bringing Together the
T and E of STEM in Early Childhood Teacher Education.
Jl. of Technology and Teacher Education
, 355-377. Catron, C. E., Allen, J. 1999.
Early Childhood Curriculum: A Creative Play Model , 2nd Edition.
New Jersey: Merill Publ. Desmita. 2009.
Psikologi Perkembangan Peserta Didik.
Goleman, D. 1995.
Emotional Intelligence.
Michigan: Bantam Books. Hurlock, E. B. 1992.
P erkembangan Anak jilid 1.
Jakarta: Erlangga. ISO. 2012, March 1.
ISO 8373:2012 Robots and robotic devices
. Retrieved September 2, 2014, from International Organization for Standardization:
https:www.iso.orgobpuiiso:std:iso:8373:ed-2:v1:en Joao-Monteiro, M., Cristovao-Morgado, R., Cruz, M. G., Morgado, L. 2007. A Robot in
Kindergarten.
HAL
, 382-387. Pekerti. 2008.
Metode Pengembangan Seni.
Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka. Santrock, J. W. 2002.
Life-Span Development: P erkembangan Masa Hidup, Edisi 5, Jilid 1.
Jakarta: Erlangga. Semiawan, C. 2002.
Belajar dan pembelajaran dalam taraf pendidikan usia dini: Pendidikan prasekolah dan sekolah dasar.
Jakarta: Prenhallindo. Sujiono, N. Y. 2009.
Konsep Dasar Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini.
Jakarta: Indeks.
99
IMPLEMENTING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DESIGN BETWEEN TAIWAN AND INDONESIA VIA ONLINE TEACHING
Yeni Rachmawati
Ph.D. Student at National Dong Hwa University,Taiwan; Instructor of Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Cheng-Hsiung Lu
University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA
Hui-Hua Chen
National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Ocih Setiasih
Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Leli Kurniawati
Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to share information about the necessity of multicultural education in Indonesia through online teaching, that held at National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, and Indonesia University of
Education, Indonesia. As multicultural education will help students to create equal educational opportunities from diverse racial, ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups, one of its important goals is to help all students to
acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with people from diverse groups in order to create a civic and
moral community that works for the common good. This study has implemented
―Dick and Carey model‖ by online teaching approach. The subjects on this research are the fourth semester of undergraduate students who
are majored in Early Childhood Teacher Education at Indonesia University of Education. They are composed of one male and fourteen female students. The results may not be generalized to other teaching institutions due
to the limited numbers of the participants. This research was conducted in two public Universities in two countries. The first location is held in the Department of Curriculum Design and Human Potentials, National
Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; the second location is held in Department of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia. It was interesting that using
online teaching still could achieve good improvement, similar to traditional teaching that using
―face-to-face‖ situation. The distance between Taiwan and Indonesia is not influenced and being distraction for the learning
process; neither the limitation of media, tools and Internet connection affected as long as the teacher prepared well all of needed materials. By using Dick and Careys instructional system design, students were able to
enhance their understanding about this theme of learning. This condition showed the increase of students performance mean scores from 5.142 to 8.928 with four students able to get posttest scores 100 correct,
seven students 90 correct, two students 80 correct, and only one student 60 correct. According to the percentage of the average score of posttest, the teaching activity by using this approach has succeeded to
improve students understanding about multicultural education. In addition, the percentage of each item has increased as well. The comparison between pre and post test has shown that the lowest score on pretest is 2.0
and the highest one is 7.0. It dramatically increased on the posttest scores with the lowest score 6.0 and the highest score 10. The rising scores ranged between 2-6 scores with an average of 3.785 point. Consequently,
the online teaching by adopting Dick and Careys ISD model has been proved to be effective for improving students learning peformance.
Keywords : Multicultural education, online teaching, traditional teaching, instructional system design
A. Preface
Multicultural issue is something important in Indonesia due to the uniqueness and cultural diversity in Indonesia. Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. It is a
South East Asian country located on the equator, between the continents of Asia and Australia, and between the Pacific Ocean and the India Ocean Kementrian Sekretariat
Negara RI, 2013; Albert, Trommsdorff, Mayer, Schwarz, 2005. Indonesia has huge population is around 222 million people in 2006 kementrian sekretariat negara RI; ; 2013.
Therefore, Indonesia becomes the
world‘s fourth most populous nation after China, India
100
and the US Kementrian Sekretarian Negara RI, 2013; Population Reference Bureau, 2003. Furthermore, Indonesia consists of 17,508 Islands kementrian sekretariat negara RI; 2013
with around 370 ethnic groups and languages Amaleeet al; 2007. According to Kementrian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Maskur, n.d. Indonesia has 125 faiths with six
religions are acknowledged and approved by state, namely Islam 88, Catholic and Protestant 8, Hindus 2, Budha 1 and konhuchu 1 CIA cites in Albert, et all;
2005. For these reasons, it is relevant to conclude that Indonesia is very diverse in nature Miksicet al; 2002; Kosasih, n.d.. From this information, the author intended to conclude a
whole picture which protrayed the demographic reality, as below:
Picture. 1 Diversity of Indonesia Indonesia is a diversity country, but the issue of multicultural education is still new in
society. However, recently, several studies and researchers have discussed about these issues is conducted around 2000s Amirin, 2012; Suparlan, 2002; Lubis, 2006; Syaifuddin, 2006;
Amirin, 2012. So this topic is very interesting to discuss in a class.
B. Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is sharing of information about the necessity of multicultural education in Indonesia through teaching online, that held in National Dong
hwa University, Taiwan and Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia. Multicultural education will help student to create equal educational opportunities from diverse racial,
ethnic, social-class, and cultural groups. One of the important goals is to help all students to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that needed to function effectively in apluralistic
democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with peoples from diverse groups in order to create a civic and moral community that works for the common good.
Moreover, from this study, students would make reflection in their own country, and emphasize about their national identity.
C. Literature Review
1. Instructional System Design Models
a. Definition
Instructional Systems Design ISD Models are the systematic guidelines instructional designers follow in order to create a workshop, a course, a curriculum, an instructional
101
program, a training session, or the instructional materials and products for educational programs. ISD is a process to ensure learning does not occur in a haphazard manner, but is
developed using a process with specific measurable outcomes. The responsibility of the
instructional designer is to create instructional experiences, which ensure that the learners will achieve the goals of instruction Rao; 2013, P7.
b. Componen of the sistems approach model
The componen of instructional system design of Dick and Carey 2005 including; a.Identify instructional; b. Conduct insructional analysis; c. Analyze learners and contexts;
d.Write performance objectives; e.Develop assessment instruments; f.Develop instructional strategy; g.Develop and select instructional materials; h.Design and conduct formative
evaluation of instruction ; i. Revisi instruction; j.Design and conduct summative evaluation
Figure 2.1. Dick and Carrey Instructional System Design Model
2. Online Learning
