Pronunciation Ex. 1 –4 Culture LCDD 14 Paya Kuna. LCDD 14 Paya Kuna

272 Classifications classified as immal tigined ‗water creatures‘, whereas nakpe ‗snake‘ is classified as immal napkined ‗land creature ‘. ua ‗fish‘ are classified as immal tigined ‗water creatures‘; in the generic sense ua covers fish and crustaceans such as tulub ‗lobster‘, pusku ‗shrimp‘, and poi ‗snails‘. ua ‗fish‘ may be divided into termal ua ‗sea fish‘ and tiwal ua ‗river fish‘. Another classification is: ua tutud ‗soft fish‘, i.e., fish with skin and scales, and ua chelled ‗hard fish‘, i.e., fish with hard shells such as the arki ‗huacuco‘. Non-food items tend to be divided into generic classifications such as chikwi ‗small birds‘ or achu ‗carnivorous animals generic ‘. 120 Within these classifications, many of the animals have specific names such as kwili ‗parakeet‘ or achu parpat ‗jaguar‘. Edible creatures, on the other hand, tend to be referred to by specific, rather than generic terms, e.g., koe ‗deer‘ and chigli ‗wild turkey‘. Insects are usually referred to as immal ‗things‘ or by a specific name if one exists, e.g., kenu ‗ticks‘ and kwi ‗mosquitos‘. They are not subdivided into flyinglandwater classifications. Plants are classified as chapi ‗trees‘, tub ‗vines‘ or kagan ‗shrubs and smaller plants‘. Inanimate things may be divided on the basis of what they are made of, what they are used for, or their usual location. Examples 1a. immal ezhagad ‗things of ironsteel‘ b. immal napkad ‗things of earthenware‘ c. immal olgad ‗things of gold‘ 2a. immal chobgaled ‗things to make things with tools‘ b. immal tugaled ‗things to cook with‘ Another way of classifying all immal is by whether or not they are immal chapurbalid ‗things from the jungle‘ or not. This term refers primarily to jungle fauna, but also may refer to jungle flora. 120 Where a word in Kuna has both specific and generic meanings, the specific sense is the one which a Kuna speaker generally thinks of first, for example, achu ‗dog‘. 20.4 Grammar 273 273 Figure 8. PAYA KUNA CLASSIFICATION OF THINGS immal ‗things‘ ┌──────────────────────┬─┴──────────────────────┐ immal ‗inanimate‘ pulgan ina tulad immal ‗animate‘ ┌───┴───┬───────┐ ┌───┴─┬─────┐ ┌───────┴──────┐ immal immal immal chapi tub kagan immal tul tule ezhagad napkad olgad ‗trees‘ ‗vines‘ ‗shrubs ‗non-human life‘ ‗people‘ ‗iron ‗earthenware ‗gold plants‘ things‘ things‘ things‘ │ ┌────────┐ OR wag tule │ ‗outsiders‘ ‗KunaIndian‘ ┌─────────┐ ┌──┴───┬──────┐ immal chobgaled immal tugaled wag merki igles ‗tools for ‗things to ‗Latins‘ ‗North ‗West making things‘ cook with‘ Americans‘ Indians‘ ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬────────────────┐ specific names immal tul kukualed immal tigined immal napkined of insects ‗flying things‘ ‗water creatures‘ ‗land creatures‘ ┌─────────┴┐ ┌──────┴┬──────┐ non-edible edible taim tin ua ‗alligator‘ ‗caiman‘ ‗fish‘ ┌─────┬────┐ ┌─────┬──────┬──┴─┐ chulup various chikwi specific names tulub pusku poi ua ‗eagles‘ classes ‗small chigli ‗wild ‗lobster‘ ‗shrimp‘ ‗snails‘ ‗fish‘ birds‘ turkey‘ │ ┌─────────┐ specific names specific names termal ua tiwal ua kwili ‗parakeet‘ ‗sea fish‘ ‗river fish‘ purin ‗blue thrush‘ │ OR ┌────┴────┐ ua tutud ua chelled ‗soft fish‘ ‗hard fish‘ ┌──────────────────────┬──────────────┐ edible non-edible snakes │ ┌───────┴─────┐ specific names achu various classes koe ‗deer‘ ‗carnivores‘ yannu ‗peccary‘ │ specific names

20.4 Grammar

20.4.1 Pronouns

Although there is a brief discussion of pronouns in Lesson I, there are several other pronominal forms not yet mentioned and other aspects of pronominal usage important for the language learner.

20.4.1.1 Third-person pronouns

Third-person pronouns are used to refer to people or objects, and the rules for using each of the different third-person forms are quite different from English or Spanish. 1 Topical third-person pronoun When the third-person pronoun refers to the topic of conversation, the specific pronoun is determined by its function in the sentence. 274 Classifications a Topical subject When the topic of conversation is the subject of the sentence, ade ‗hesheit‘ or amala ‗they‘ is used. Examples 1. ¿Ade pia nad? ‗Where did he go?‘ 2. Amal pato nanmal. ‗They‘ve already left.‘ b Topical non-subject When the topic of conversation is not the subject of the sentence, the third-person pronoun tar is used plus the appropriate suffix if one is required. Example An targa chogzha. ‗I said to him.‘ 2 Non-topical third-person pronoun When the subject is not the topic, it is possible to leave out the pronouns which refer to the subject. Elsewhere in the sentence a non-topic element may be referred to by a pronoun. a Non-subject, non-topic in the first-person narrative In first-person narrative, the third-person pronoun ne accompanied by the appropriate suffix is used everywhere in the subject position. Examples 1. An ne mecha. ‗I killed it.‘ 2. An nega chog. ‗I said to him.‘ b Non-subject, non-topic in third-person narrative In third-person narrative, the pronoun te is used to refer to the direct object. Examples

1. Pablo te mecha. ‗Paul killed it that same one.‘

2. An te ukcha. ‗I sold it that same one.‘

In the case of the indirect object, the indirect object suffix -ga occurs alone without an accompanying pronoun. Example Luis ga chogal. ‗Louis began to say to him.‘ 3 Continuity of paragraph topic The topic of a conversation discourse tends to occur as the subject of the sentences throughout the paragraphs that make up the conversation. Sometimes, however, the topic of the conversation becomes the direct or indirect object of a sentence. In English, the passive voice is used to indicate that the topic in that particular sentence is not the actor, ―John was hit by a car.‖ In Kuna, when the topic of the conversation becomes the directindirect object of one of the sentences, it is placed in the first position of the sentence and there is a slight pause before the remainder of the utterance is said. The third person pronoun tar accompanied by the appropriate suffix occurs in the object position. Example Juan , achu tar kucha. ‗John was bitten by the dog.‘ When the topic of a paragraph is not the topic of the conversation nor the subject in a given sentence, it is placed at the beginning of the sentence followed by a slight pause; there is no pronoun in the objectindirect object position.