Tegin antin kannan negzhe nadzhun. ‗Consequently I went back home.‘

262 Kuna Speech Types 3. An yannu pid makchabal. ‗I shot another peccary too.‘ 4. An pega chan uktani ‗I‘m bringing you meat.‘ 5. An chapurbal yannu ebes. ‗I left the peccary in the jungle.‘

19.4.6 Causative Ex. 12

A causative action is one which the subject causes someone else to perform; it parallels the English construction ―to cause someone to‖. In Kuna, the causative is formed by adding the causative prefix o- to the verb stem. Most, although not all, verbs may use the causative prefix. Certain related concepts which in English are expressed by two separate verbs, are expressed in Kuna by the verb and by the verb plus the causative prefix. Examples 1a. turta ‗to learn‘

b. odurta

112 ‗to teach lit.: to cause to learn‘ 2a. kun ‗to eat‘

b. okun

‗to feed lit.: to cause to eat‘ 3a. kob ‗to drink‘

b. ogob

113 ‗to give a drink lit.: to cause to drink‘ 4a. Kallen oge. ‗Light the lamp.Switch on the light.‘

b. Kallen okin.

‗Put out the lamp.Switch off the light.‘ Exercise 12 . o- substitution frame drill The teacher says the sentence and the student repeats it using the causative o- form in the frame. Example Teacher: An ti kobo. Student: An machi ti ogobo. Frame An machi ____ o-____. ‗I ____ cause the boy to ____.‘ 1. An ti kobo. ‗I‘ll drink water.‘ 2. An ua kucha. ‗I ate fish.‘ 3. An turtane. ‗I‘m going to learn.‘ 4. An tomomanai. ‗I am swimming.‘ 5. An nane. ‗I walk.‘

19.4.7 Causative commands

The formation of commands which cause another person to do an action varies according to the type of verb used.

19.4.7.1 Intrinsically causative verbs

Verbs which are intrinsically causative may be used in causative commands without affixation. Example Anche machi palmidago. ‗Send the boy to me lit.: make the boy come to me.‘ 19.4.7.2 Verbs with a causative form Verbs with a causative form see 19.4.6 may also be used in a causative command. 112 t initial becomes lenis d in odurta ‗to teach‘. 113 k initial becomes lenis g in ogob ‗to cause to drink‘. 19.4 Grammar 263 Example Machi ina ogobo. ‗Make the boy drink the medicine.‘

19.4.7.3 Verb ima „to make‟ in causative command

If a verb is not intrinsically causative and has no causative form, the imperative form of the verb ima ‗to make‘ is used. The purpose suffix -gal-kal is added to the verb which is to be carried out. The action verb plus -gal-kal is followed by the actor and subsequently by imako ‗make‘. Example Pe neg chobgal machi imako. ‗You make the boy build the house.‘ Note the difference in word order. In this example, machi, the one caused to do the action, precedes ―to make‖ while the object of building occurs in the normal order for a direct object. On the other hand, in the example for Exercise 12, machi occurs in the normal order for an indirect object but without the suffix -ga-ka. 19.4.7.4 Prevention of causative action To prevent an action from being caused, the word melle ‗do not‘ is used to begin the causative command sentence. Examples 1. Melle machi palmidago. ‗Don‘t send the boy.‘

2. Melle machi ina ogobo.

‗Don‘t make the boy drink the medicine.‘

3. Melle neg chobgal machi imako.

‗Don‘t make the boy build the house.‘

19.4.8 Impersonal passive suffix -le-lle Ex. 13

The impersonal passive construction in which the actor agent is not named parallels the English construction as in, ―The boy was cut‖. It is formed by adding the passive suffix -le-lle to the short form of the verb stem. -lelle precedes such verbal suffixes as -cha-zha-ja and -ne and -al. The lenis consonant -le follows a lenis consonant or a vowel. The fortis consonant -lle follows a fortis consonant but is written as a single -le by convention. It is important to note the difference between -le-lle ‗impersonal passive‘ and the conditional suffix -le ‗if‘ which attaches to the long form of the verb stem or preceding suffix and occurs after aspect and most other verbal suffixes. Because the conditional suffix attaches to the long form of the verb i.e., follows a vowel a fortis form does not occur. Example Machimal chiklesmalbalile, an pe odurtako. ‗If the boys are cut again, I will punish you.‘ In this example, the first -le is the passive suffix, and the second is the conditional suffix. 19.4.8.1 Passive suffix -le-lle with completed aspect -s The short form of the completed aspect -s often occurs with the passive suffix -le-lle. Examples

1. Machi chikles.

‗The boy wasis cut.‘

2. Koe makles.

‗The deer wasis shot.‘ 19.4.8.2 Pseudo-passive The passive suffix -le-lle may be used alone with a verb stem or it may occur with the suffix -ge to form a pseudo-passive in which no specific event is referred to. 1 Passive suffix - le-lle used alone The passive suffix -le-lle when used alone with the verb stem denotes the habitual aspect of a passive concept.