A yannudin igalgin mellemai. ‗That peccary was sprawled out on the trail.‘ Vocabulary

20.4 Grammar 277 Examples 1. ¿Toa chogzha? ‗Who said it?‘

2. Amal.

‗They unspecified did.‘ 20.4.4.2 Indeterminate pronouns In Paya Kuna, there are several universal or indeterminate pronominal forms. Meke toa tule ‗anyone‘ refers to all the people. Example Meke toa tule nabir kukualedgin tog. ‗Anybody may go into the any airplane.‘ Meke ibi tule ‗anyone of a certain group‘ refers to anyone from among a certain group. Example Meke ibi tule nabir togo. ‗Any of them may go in.‘ Another universal or indeterminate pronominal form is meke igi ‗howeverin whatever way‘. Example Meke igi pe chobbiel, ampa tutujul. ‗Whatever way you might want to make it, it is still difficult.‘ Another universal or indeterminate pronominal form is meke pia ‗wherever‘. Example Meke pia an nao, an kwen tobzhul. ‗Wherever I go, I‘m not at all afraid.‘ Another universal or indeterminate pronominal form is meke inkwa ‗whenever‘. Example Meke inkwa pe anche kolo. ‗Call me anytime.‘ 20.4.5 Reference to group members Several words may be used to refer to onevariousall members of a group.

a. walgwen

‗aone‘ is used to refer to a single personthing whowhich is part of a larger group. Examples 1. Tule walgwen mai. ‗There was lived a person.‘ 2. Tule walgwen noni. ‗Aone person arrived.‘ b. walgwenna ‗alone‘ refers to one person to the exclusion of others. Example Tule walgwenna noni. ‗The person arrived alone. One lone person arrived.‘ c. te ‗that same‘ see 20.4.3 is used to refer to the same personsthings which waswere referred to previously. Example Te tule kannan nadbal. ‗That same person went back again.‘ d. wal-walgwen ‗some‘ is used to refer to some peoplethings from a group. Example Tule wal-walgwen yapa ne. ‗Some people don‘t want to go.‘ e. pid pimalad ‗another others‘ is used to describe others, not necessarily all others, from a group. Examples 1. Tule pid noni. ‗Another person arrived.‘ 2. Tule pimalad pes. ‗Still others remained behind.‘ 278 Classifications f. kwentin ... kwentin ‗some ... ; some ...‘ is used to contrast one sub-group with another sub-group. Example Kwentin ua kumpi; kwentin chuga. ‗Some a group want to eat fish; some want to eat crab.‘ g. kwentin ... piddinpimaladdin 123 ‗some ... others ...‘ is usually used in a situation of a more marked contrast between two parts of a group than is referred to by kwentin ... kwentin ‗some ... ; some ...‘. Example Kwentin ua kumpi tenal pimaladdin chul. ‗Some want to eat fish while others don‘t.‘ h. egmal ‗the restremainder‘ refers to the balance of the group. Example Egmaldin kallin chan kumpi. ‗The rest want to eat chicken meat.‘ i. pelpel kwapa ‗all‘ refers to the entire group. Example Pel kwapa kabe kobzha. ‗Everyoneall drank coffee.‘ j. pelchal ‗almost all‘ includes all but a few of a group. Example Tule pelchal pukwa. ‗Almost everyone was there.‘ k. sate ‗nobodynothing‘ excludes the entire group. Example Tule sate pe pentagal. ‗There is nobody to help you.‘ l. nikchulchal ‗almost no onenone‘ excludes all but a few from the group. Example Tule nikchulchal mani ‗Almost no people have money. Almost no one has money.‘ Another way of excluding the entire group is with the expression nikchul ‗not one‘. Example Tule kwen nikchul pe pentagal. ‗There is not a single person to help you.‘ 20.4.6 Reflexive pronouns In Kuna, as in English, reflexive pronouns are used to indicate that an actor is doing an action to himselfherselfitself. Reflexive pronouns are also used in a construction which indicates volition. There are two reflexive pronouns: naga ‗myself‘ and aga ‗yourselfhimselfherselfitself‘ and these follow the noun or pronoun referring to the subject of the sentence. Examples 1. Antin naga chikcha. ‗I cut myself.‘ 2. ¿Pedin aga chikcha? ‗Did you cut yourself?‘ 3. Machi aga chikcha. ‗The boy cut himself.‘ 20.4.6.1 Group marker with reflexive pronoun When a reflexive pronoun is used to refer to a group of peoplethings who are doing the action to themselves, the group marker -mal see 13.4.3 is added to the noun or pronoun which refers to the participants. It is also added to the verb. 123 kwentin, piddin and pimaladdin are formed by adding the topic-establishing suffix -din-tin to an indefinite pronoun stem. 20.4 Grammar 279 Examples 1. Anmal naga pezhe chikchamal. ‗We including you cut ourselves badly.‘

2. Nanmal naga chikchamal.

‗We excluding you cut ourselves.‘ 3. ¿Pemal aga chikchamal? ‗Did you plural cut yourselves?‘

4. Machimal aga chikchamal.

‗The boys cut themselves.‘ When the people in the group are acting reciprocally, i.e., doing the action to each other, the actors are stated with the group marker -mal. The third-person reflexive pronoun is followed by the repeated third-person pronoun which has the group marker -mal. The verb also has the group marker -mal added. Examples 1. ¿Pemal aga emal-emal chikchamal? ‗Did you cut each other?‘ 2. Machimal aga emal-emal chikchamal. ‗The boys cut each other.‘ 3. Tulemal aga emal-emal chogalmal pede tule nued. ‗The people said among themselves that you were a good person.‘ When there are two actors acting one toward the other, the third-person reflexive pronoun is used. It is followed by the second participant in the action to which the accompaniment suffix -bak-pak has been added. The group marker suffix -mal is added to the verb. Example Pun aga machibak sakismal. ‗The girl and boy hit each other.‘

20.4.6.2 Volition

The Kuna construction which parallels the English phrase, ―of his own volition,‖ is expressed by using the appropriate reflexive pronoun followed by tukin see 20.4.8. Examples

1. An naga tukin nad.

‗I went myself of my own free will.‘

2. Machi aga tukin es pakcha.

‗The boy bought the machete himself of his own volition.‘ 20.4.7 Affirmation 20.4.7.1 Contrastive affirmation A speaker may affirm one ideaaction in contrast with another. For example, in the case of ―the youth doesn‘t know how to make a canoe, but the elder does, ‖ the village elder‘s skill is affirmed in contrast to the youth‘s lack of experience. This concept is expressed in Kuna by the contrastive affirmation suffix -diji-tiji. Example Machi wichul ul chob tenal taddiji. ‗The youth doesn‘t know how to make a canoe but the elder does .‘ 20.4.7.2 Emphatic affirmation In English, a speaker may affirm that it was indeed the subject who did the action by stressing a reflexive pronoun which refers to the actor or he may affirm the carrying out of the verb by stressing the verb itself. The verb may also be affirmed by the use of an adverb such as ―really, truly, indeed.‖ In Kuna, the subject may be affirmed by adding the affirmation suffix -de-te to the first-person and second-person pronoun subject and -de-te to nouns referring to all other subjects. It may also be affirmed by the use of the adverb chunnad ‗it was really Iyouhewethey‘. Examples 1. Annid takcha. ‗I saw it myself.‘ 2. ¿Ped takcha? ‗Did you see it yourself?‘ 3. Machide takcha. ‗The boy saw it himself.‘ 4. Ade takcha. ‗He saw it himself.‘ 280 Classifications

5. An chunnad takcha. ‗It was really I who saw it.‘

The action may be affirmed by adding the affirmation suffix -de-te to the verb or by using the adverb chunchunnad ‗reallyactually‘. Examples 1. Anid takchade. ‗I myself saw it.‘ 2. ¿Pe takchade? ‗You saw it?‘ 3. An chunchunnad takcha. ‗I really saw it.‘ 20.4.8 Contrary-to-fact Ex. 5 To this point in the discussion of Kuna grammar, most situations have been likely to come to pass or did, indeed, happen. There are times, however, when one needs to use expressions which parallel the English construction ‗had ... happened although it did not‘ or ‗I wish ... had happened but it didn‘t‘. Such situations are called condition contrary-to-fact or hypothetical situations. An example of an English contrary-to-fact sentence is, ―Had I gone, I would have gotten wet.‖ This is contrary-to-fact because the person did not go and did not get wet. In Kuna, a condition contrary-to-fact sentence is formed by adding the contrary-to-fact suffix -n to the verbs in both the conditional and main clauses of a conditional sentence see 14.4.5. Various shades of meaning are indicated by the use of different aspects and tenses in the main and subordinate clauses. Many contrary-to-fact constructions are rare. For the purpose of this discussion, general principles are given to guide in the construction of contrary-to-fact expressions, and some of the more commonly-used constructions are listed by way of example. 124

20.4.8.1 General principles used in construction of more common contrary-to-fact sentences

1 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form of completive aspect + -le + -n completive aspect + -n Examples 1. Pedro karpa ogujalen, tazhi takchajulin. ‗If Peter had finished making the basket, he would not have seen the possom. ‘

2. An nadelen, an wartikujan.

‗If I had gone, I would have gotten wet. ‘

3. Mas kuchalen, imme itojan.

‗If he had eaten, he would have felt full. ‘

4. Machi eswal tub nikujalen, ua chwajan.

‗If the boy had had fish line, he would have gone fishing. ‘

5. An Payche arpiilen, Luis takchan.

‗If I had arrived at Paya, I would have seen Louis. ‘ 2 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form of verb stem + -le + -n long form of future + -n Examples 1. Yannu takelen, machi tar mejoen. ‗If he were to see a peccary, the boy would kill it. ‘

2. An neelen, an wartikuoen.

‗If I were to go, I would get wet. ‘ 124 Appendix L. 20.4 Grammar 281

3. An motor pin nikalen, an Panamaje naoen

‗If I were to have a new motor, I would go to Panama. ‘ 3 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form of present progressive + -le + -n completive aspect + -n Examples 1. Pedro mas kunchiilen, kukualed takchajulin. ‗If Peter had remained continued eating, he would not have seen the plane. ‘

2. Machi toto kammaiilen, tadbak nadzhulin

‗If the little boy had remained sleeping, he would not have gone with Grandfather. ‘ 4 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form of stative verb + -le + -n immediate future + -n Examples 1. José eswal nikalen, ua maknen ‗If Joseph had a spear, he would go to spear fish. ‘

2. Mol webal naiilen, wartikunen.

‗If the blouse were hanging there, it would get wet. ‘ 5 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form nee of immediate future + -le + -n future long form + -n Examples 1. An mas kunneelen, naga mas chedoen. ‗If I were going to eat, I would have brought food for myself. ‘

2. An mol pakneelen, an pega pakmogoen.

‗If I were going to buy cloth, I would have bought some for you, as well. ‘ 6 Conditional clause: Main clause: long form of completive aspect + -le + -n long form of future + -n Example An ua pakchalen, an pega ukoen. ‗Were I to buy fish, I would give you some. ‘ Exercise 5 . Contrary-to-fact -n stimulus response drill The teacher says the sentence and the student repeats it changing it to a contrary-to-fact situation. This exercise should be repeated several times. Example Teacher: An nel, 125 an wartikuo. Student: An neelen, an wartikuoen. 1. An nel, an wartikuo. ‗When I go I will get wet.‘ 2. An ua pakchal, an pega uko. ‗When I have bought fish, I will give you some.‘ 3. An mol pakel, an mol kinnid pako. ‗When I buy cloth, I will buy red cloth.‘ 4. Machi ua chwanel, pe nabir nao. ‗When the boy goes fishing, you may go.‘ 5. María tub nikal, mol makne. ‗When Mary has thread, she is going to sew a blouse.‘ 20.4.8.2 Polite contradiction In Kuna, a polite contradiction of a statement parallels the English construction, ―If that had been trueso, this would have been fineokay. ‖ 125 nel is a contracted form of the long form of nele. 282 Classifications Example Nabiriddin 126 nabirin. ‗It would be fine, if that were so.‘ Lit.: ‗Were it fine, it would be fine.‘

20.4.8.3 Wishing optative

The English concept of wishing is expressed in Kuna by the use of a contrary-to-fact conditional clause accompanied by the adverb nabirin ‗it would be good‘ in the main clause. This construction basically parallels the English expression ―It would be nice tofor ...‖ or ―I wish forto ...‖. As in English, the Kuna optative construction is used in situations which are much less likely to materialize than are situations which employ the desiderative suffix -bi-pi ‗to want to ...‘ see Section 2.4.2. Examples 1. An motor pin nikalen, nabirin. ‗I wish I had a new motor. Lit.: If I were to have a new motor, it would be good.‘ 2. An motor pin nikujalen, nabirin. ‗I wish I had had a new motor. Lit.: If I had had a new motor, it would have been good.‘ 3. An mas kuchalen, nabirin. ‗I wish had eaten. Lit.: If I had eaten it would have been nice.‘ The optative construction is also used to wish something for someone else and parallels the English construction, ―May you....‖ Examples 1. Pe nugujalen, nabirin. ‗May you get well.‘ 2. Pab Tummad be nugu takelen, nabirin. ‗May God bless you. Lit.: It would be well if God would look well on you.‘

20.4.8.4 “Almost, but not quite”

An event which almost transpired, but did not, is described by using the immediate future suffix -ne followed by the contrary-to-fact suffix -n. Examples 1. Machi iche napi purkwenen. ‗The boy almost died.‘ 2. Mu aglenen. ‗The old woman almost fell.‘ 20.4.9 Past perfect aspect suffix -n The past perfect aspect parallels the English construction, ―he had previously finished eating,‖ in contrast to the completive aspect which parallels, ―he finished eating.‖ The past perfect is formed by adding the suffix -n after the completive suffix. This -n should be distinguished carefully from the one occurring in contrary-to-fact constructions see 20.4.8. Example Amal iktual pato mas kuchan. ‗They had already eaten beforehand.‘ Note that with the positional verbs nai, mai, ti, etc., the perfective form with -n means that the position has since terminated. In the case of the suffix form -nai, -di-ti, etc., the action in progress has since terminated. Examples 1. ¿Pia pe tin? ‗Where had you been?‘ 2. Pabdin main. ‗Father had been home.‘ 3. An mas kunnain. ‗I had been eating.‘ 126 In this irregular case, the final n of nabirin becomes d before the suffix -din. 20.4 Grammar 283

20.4.10 Probabilitypossibility

Events, actions, and peoplethings may be described in terms of probabilities or possibilities. If an event is probably truegoing to happen, the suffix -chulchi-julchi ‗Is it not?‘ is added to the verb of the main sentence. Examples 1. ¿Pe nejulchi? ‗You are going, are you not?‘ 2. ¿Pabdin nadchulchi? ‗Father went, did he not?‘ When an action or noun phrase is described as a probability, the suffix -dewa-tewa 127 is added to the verb or noun phrase. Examples 1. ¿Pe anka immal chedodewa? ‗Will you probably bring something for me?‘ 2. An manigin uknedewa. ‗I‘m probably going to sell it for money.‘ 3. An mol pakne; kinniddewa. ‗I‘m going to buy cloth; probably red cloth.‘ If something is a possibility and by no means certain, the suffix -dowa-towa ‗possibly‘ is added to the appropriate verb or noun phrase. Examples 1. ¿Pe mol paknedowa? ‗Are you perhapspossibly going to buy blouses?‘ 2. An Pedro panamabal takodowa. ‗I will perhaps see Peter in Panama.‘ 3. An wichi toa sagla palmine; Pedrodowa. ‗I don‘t know whom the chief is going to send, Peter perhaps .‘ The suffix -wa is also added to question words to indicate possibility. Examples 1. ¿Pia? ‗Where?‘ 2. ¿Inkwa? ‗When?‘ 3. ¿Ibi? ‗What?‘ 4. ¿Piawa? ‗Where could it possibly be?‘ 5. ¿Inkwawa? ‗When could it possibly happen?‘ 6. ¿Ibiwa? ‗What‘s wrong? Lit.: What possibly?‘

20.4.11 Alternatives

The stating of alternatives in Kuna is complex: both of the alternatives are stated. Several ways are used to express alternatives.

20.4.11.1 Alternatives in postpredicate position

A main sentence, either a statement or question, which gives rise to the alternatives is stated with the probabilitypossibility suffix -dewa-tewa attached to the verb. The two alternatives with the suffix -dewa-tewa ‗perhaps‘ attached to each one, are stated in the postpredicate position. When the alternative is more remote the suffix -dowa-towa is used. Examples 1. Antin wichul inkwa tanidewa; pandewa o 128 achuldewa. ‗I do not know when he is coming perhaps; perhaps tomorrow or perhaps the day after tomorrow.‘ 127 The suffix -dibe-tibe ‗perhaps‘ is used rarely in the Paya Kuna dialect although it is common in the San Blas dialect. It is limited to already hypothetical situations. For example, ¿Ibi an immal kaotibe ye? ‗How could I perhaps catch something?‘ see 13 of Section 20.1. 128 The Spanish o ‗or‘ has been borrowed into the language and is used often between alternatives. 284 Classifications 2. An wichul; Pedro tanidowa o chuldowa. ‗I don‘t know; Peter is coming perhaps or not perhaps ‘

20.4.11.2 Chulil The adverb chulil

‗if not‘ may be used to express an alternative. In this case, two sentences are used; the first gives one alternative, the second begins with chulil and provides the other alternative. Example Sagla pan noniko. Chulil, achul. ‗The chief will arrive tomorrow. If not, then the day after tomorrow .‘

20.4.11.3 Alternative choice

When a speaker is deciding on a choice of two actions or people, the choice is indicated by two questions; the first poses the choice involved with or without -dewa-tewa, the second states the two alternatives each accompanied by -dewa-tewa ‗perhaps‘. Examples 1a. ¿Igi an chao? ‗What shall I do?‘ b. ¿An naodewa o chuldewa? ‗I should go perhaps or not perhaps?‘ 2a. ¿Toa an palminedewa? ‗Whom should I send perhaps?‘ b. ¿Pedrodewa o Pablodewa? ‗Peter perhaps or Paul perhaps?‘ 3a. ¿Mol igid an pako? ‗What color of cloth will I buy?‘ b. Antin mol kinnid paknedewa o mol kollogwaddewa. ‗I will buy red cloth perhaps or yellow perhaps.‘

20.4.12 Types of text

There are several types of text, each of which is used in a different setting and deals with different areas of types of speech.

20.4.12.1 Narrative text

A narrative text relates events and stories of everyday life.

20.4.12.2 Explanatory text

This type of text involves explanations and descriptions of situations or things. It is used to explain various aspects of the culture or tradition.

20.4.12.3 Argumentative text

This type of text differs from the explanatory text in that it portrays pros and cons, and there is an attempt to convince the audience of accepting what is being proposed.

20.4.12.4 Hortatory text

Hortatory texts are used in teaching and exhortation and not only involve the do ‘s and don‘ts of everyday life, but also talk about the consequences of actions, good and bad.

20.4.12.5 Procedural text

Procedural texts are step by step how-to-do-it instructions. Each type of text has its own characteristics. Recognizing the different types will help in separating the different ―rules‖ governing each type of text. 20.4 Grammar 285

20.4.13 Discourse markers

It is not long before an outsider notices that in formal speech and to a lesser extent, in everyday speech, there is a handful of words which literally pepper the Kuna discourse. These words are discourse markers and are difficult for outsiders to understand and control. The purpose of this section is to help the student at least be aware of these forms and their function.

20.4.13.1 Function of discourse markers

129 Some markers indicate the attitude of the speaker towards his audience and include: -ye, -do, -a, jaj, and -chulchi. Other markers indicate how the speaker is relating what he is saying to his audience and include: itos, takcha, takenye , chogeye, takenchogye, chogchundo, and itoleye. 20.4.13.2 Distribution of discourse markers Discourse markers are inserted at the end of a thought which usually coincides with the end of a sentence. The speaker may also insert them just prior to the postpredicate position or at the end of each of several coordinate clauses. Examples 1. Pe wis an pentakoye. ‗Oh please, help me.‘ 2. Koe nad takenye, immal aminad takenye. ‗Deer went you see, hunting animals you see.‘ 3. Omegan immal taked nai takenye, immal echiknaichun takenye. ‗The women who looked after things were there you see , and they cut up the meat you see .‘ See also sentences 37 and 38 in section A of this lesson.

20.4.13.3 Specific markers

1 - ye The marker -ye ‗supplicatorynon-authoritative‘ has the effect of making the speaker ―talk-up‖ to his listener. The clearest example of the use of -ye is when someone is pleading for something, or talking to someone of much higher rank or status see 20.1, Sentence 12. Example Pe wis an pentakoye. ‗Oh please, please help me.‘ This -ye marker is used in storytelling and usually occurs as part of another discourse marker, e.g.,. takenye ‗appeal for credibility‘. In this sense, there is still an element of a plea to the listener see takenye in 8 below. 2 - do-to The marker -do-to ‗assertion‘ has been discussed in Appendix E, 5 and 6. However, it retains its assertive flavor when used as part of other discourse markers, e.g., chogchundo see 20.1, Sentence 6. Example Tadgan maidgin teob kuschogchundo. ‗That‘s what happened when the ancestors were alive.‘ 3 - a The tone of the marker -a ‗explanatory‘ is more neutral and there is no assertion or defensiveness. It is often used in teaching situations see 20.1, Sentence 2. 129 It is difficult to ascribe a specific meaning to the discourse markers. 286 Classifications Example An wis igal onakwia. ‗Explaining I‘m going to tell you a story.‘ 4 jáj Although jáj ‗challenge‘ is often used to make a real question one that expects an answer into a rhetorical question one that doesn ‘t expect an answer, in a wider sense, it is used to challenge the listener to dispute or contradict what he has said. Example ¿Inkwa pe takcha, jáj? ‗When did you see it, go on tell me?‘ 5 - chulchi-zhulchi-julchi When the speaker feels that the audience is in agreement with him, the appeal for agreement is a mere formality and the point will be willingly conceded, the suffix -chulchi-zhulchi-julchi ‗Isn‘t that so?‘ is used see Monologue 19.1, Sentence 2. Example Teun Pedro maimojulchi. ‗At that time Peter was home, wasn‘t he? Everybody knows he was.‘ 6 itos The marker itos ‗you understand‘ is used to mark explanatory comments of background or additional information see Dialogue 15.1, Sentence 11. Example An pega ochi ukmogo itos. ‗I‘ll give you a candy too, you understand.‘ 7 takchataikcha The marker takchataikcha ‗you understand‘ is also used to appealask for understanding. However, takcha is used with mainline information such as the main points of an argument, or an important explanation on which the outcome of the story is dependent see Section 20.1, Sentence 5. Example An pega mani uko, anka immal pakegal , takcha . ‗I‘ll give you some money, see, to buy me something.‘ 8 takenye The marker takenye ‗appeal for credibility‘ is used when the speaker is appealing for the believing support of the listeners. It is used extensively in storytelling and in narrating of personal or reported experiences see 20.1, Sentence 17. Example Teun achu mai takenye. ‗At that time tiger was livingat home you see.‘ 9 takenchogye The marker takenchogye ‗appeal for credibility of what was said‘ has the same meaning as takenye except that it relates to what was said instead of what happened see 20.1, Sentence 20. Example Koe chogal: --An ne tegil, takenchogye. ‗Deer said, ―I‘m going then,‖ you understand that he said it.‘ 10 chogeye The marker chogeye ‗it is said‘ is used when the speaker disclaims any responsibility for what is said. It is usually assumed to be fiction see 20.1, Sentence 4. 20.5 Vocabulary 287 Example Koe mai chogeye. ‗Once upon a time, deer was livingat home.‘ 11 chogchundo The expression chogchundo ‗it is said and it is supposed to be true‘ is used when the speaker is claiming what he said to be true but at the same time he is not accepting the responsibility for what is being said. Example Tadgan maidgin teob kuschogchundo. ‗That‘s what happened when the ancestors were alive. They say it is true.‘ 12 itoleye The speaker is advising his listener that the statement itoleye ‗it is understood‘ is surmise on the part of someone other than himself see 20.1, Sentence 30. Example Koe untar immal mecha itoleye. ‗Deer killed many creatures it is understood.‘

20.5 Vocabulary

1. Nabiriddin, nabirin. ‗It would be fine if that were so.‘ 2. nikchulchal ‗almost none‘ 3. pelchal ‗almost all‘ 4. pul ‗moremost‘ 5. pel kwapa ‗all‘ 6. pel ukles ‗all toldcounted‘ 7. kwentin ... pimaladdin ‗some ... others‘ 8. kwentin ... kwentin ‗some ... some‘ 9. kwaki ‗to be frightened‘ 10. wal-walgwen ‗some‘ 11. weobi ‗like this‘ 12. wisgad ‗got betterwell‘ 13. mellemai ‗lying around‘ 14. walgwenna ‗alone‘ 15. impagin ‗often‘ 16. impakwa ‗seldom‘ 17. ilbali ‗eachin turn‘ 18. iktuali ‗beforehand‘ 19. ige ‗to forget‘ 20. chuluba ‗hawkpolice‘ 21. epise ‗to count‘ 22. ebue ‗to touch‘ 23. esmedi ‗pot‘ 24. echike ‗to cut up‘ 25. ege ‗to open‘ 288 APPENDIX A: LONG AND SHORT WORD FORMS In Kuna, many words and suffixes though not all have long and short forms. That is to say, certain words or suffixes occur in various specific situations with the final vowel and in others it is deleted, without altering the meaning of the word or suffix. The use of the short form of wordssuffixes is more common, while the use of the long form is more restricted. The number of wordssuffixes which have both long and short forms varies according to the class of word; these are listed in Section 1 below. General rules for predicting which wordssuffixes have a long or short form are given in Section 2, and rules governing the use of the long form are given in Section 3.

1. Number Of LongShort Forms In The Different Word Classes

a. Verb stems all have longshort forms b. Nouns many have longshort forms c. Conjunctions most have longshort forms d. Suffixes most have longshort forms e. Adjectives few have longshort forms f. Adverbs few have longshort forms g. Pronouns few have longshort forms

2. Prediction of words which have a longshort form

Research to date has failed to reveal hard and fast rules for determining words with both long and short forms, with the exception of verb stems which all have long and short forms. In the final analysis, it is necessary simply to learn the words that have two forms and the words which do not. Some general rules will guide you in predicting which words are likely to have two forms. Rule 1 : All verb stems may be shortened. Examples 1. onoe ‗to find‘ 2. elie ‗to clean‘ Rule 2 : A word cannot end in a consonant cluster. 130 If dropping the final vowel would cause the word to end in a consonant cluster, the final vowel may not be dropped. That is to say, the word has no short form. This rule is true without exception. Examples 1. arki ‗huacuco species of fish‘

2. chigli

‗turkey‘ Rule 3 : Most three-syllable words have a short form Examples 1. apchala apchal ‗furfeather‘ 2. tatara tatar ‗thinflimsy‘ Rule 4 : If a fortis consonant precedes the final vowel, the final vowel is not usually dropped, i.e., such words generally do not have a short form. Examples 1. mata ‗lake‘ 130 Double or triple-letter symbols for a single sound ch, ll, mm, nn, rr, ss, and zh and the labialized consonants chw, dw, gw , kw, mw, tw, and zhw are not considered to be consonant clusters. Appenxix A 289

2. amma

‗aunt‘

3. achu

‗dog‘ There are, however, exceptions: 4. napa nap ‗earth‘ 5. punnu pun 131 ‗tail‘ 6. anni an 131 ‗I‘ Rule 5 : In most cases a noun with a lenis final consonant has a short form. Examples 1. ana an ‗branch‘ 2. mola mol ‗blouse‘ Exceptions to this rule include: 3. tola ‗catfish‘ 4. moli ‗tapir‘ Some nouns of this type, which potentially have long and short forms, have two distinct, but often related, meanings. Often a long form is reserved to indicate the less commonly used sense of the word, and the short form the more common sense. Examples 1. ulu ‗canoebox cupboard, suitcase‘ ul ‗canoe‘ ulu ‗boxcupboardsuitcase‘ 2. naba ‗domesticwild gourd tree‘ nab ‗domestic gourd tree‘ naba ‗wild gourd tree‘ 3. ezha ‗macheteiron‘ es ‗machete‘ ezha ‗iron‘ If the short form of two words would be identical, thus resulting in ambiguity, the more common word has both long and short forms and the other word is not shortened. Examples 1. mola mol ‗blousecloth‘ 2. moli -- ‗tapir‘ Rule 6 : Words ending in two vowels have no short form except in the case of verb stems. Examples 1. chia ‗cocoa‘ 2. koe ‗deer‘

3. Use of the long form versus the short form

The long, rather than the short, forms of words are used only in certain contexts that are discussed below. Otherwise, the short form occurs. With few exceptions, suffixes are added to the short form of words or other suffixes. 131 nn is written n word final by convention. 290 Long and Short Word Forms Examples nega + -gine = neggine ‗in the house‘ nebali + -mo = nebalmo ‗to go again also‘

a. Long forms

The long forms of words are used in the following contexts. 1 Emphasis The main use of the long form is for emphasis in various situations. In the case of a suffixed word, the long form of the final suffix is used. Examples 1. Nana. ‗MOTHER‘

2. ¡Tummagana

‗The chiefs‘ 2 Topic establishing The long form of a word is used to establish the topic of a question or statement. Examples 1. ¿Paba, pia nad? ‗Where did father go?‘ 2. Antina, an 132 ne. ‗I am going.‘ 3 Emphatic answers Emphatic, single word answers to questions occur in the long form. Examples 1. ¿Toa koe makcha? ‗Who shot the deer?‘ Anni. ‗I did.‘ 2. ¿Pedin machi takcha? ‗Did you see the boy?‘ ¡Chuli ‗No‘ 4 Attribute of attributive or equative sentence If the attribute of an attributive or equative sentence is emphasized, the long form is used see 9.4.4. Examples 1. Ul tummadi. ‗The canoe is big.‘ 2. People looking at photographs: Wedin paba. ‗That‘s Father.‘ 5 Vocative The emphatic, long form of the vocative is used when the person is at a distance, or when the speaker is exasperated. Examples 1. ¡Nana ‗Mo-o-other‘

2. ¡Punu

‗Dau-au-aughter‘ 6 Clarification The long form of a word is used to clarify a situation and to prevent ambiguity concerning which item is under discussion see 17.4.2.3. 132 When the topic is established with the suffix -dina see Appendix E, the unsuffixed noun or pronoun is often repeated in the main body of the sentence. Appenxix A 291 Example An ul pakcha, ul tummadi. ‗I bought a canoe, the big canoe.‘ 7 Listing In general, for each item in a list the long form is used, except for the last item where the short form occurs if such exists see 5.4.2. Example Antin immal pakcha: mola, iko, tegine tub. ‗I bought some things: cloth, needles, and thread.‘ 8 Hesitation When a person hesitates, in order to recall a forgotten word or name, the long form of the word is used see 17.4.1.3 and 17.4.2.4. Example Antin iwen takcha, iwenna ... Pedro. ‗I saw what‘s-his-name, ah-ah-ah ... Peter.‘