¡Motok Mer-mer-mer-mer pes. ‗Thud His wings went whir-whir-whir-whir.‘

230 Telling Stories

17.3 Culture

Kuna culture prescribes a listener ‘s code of etiquette. As a language learner, you will undoubtedly have many opportunities to hear fascinating tales from your Kuna friends. A person listening to a story is expected to interject appropriate responses, conversation sustainers see XI.D.3., in order to assure the storyteller of your continuing interest. In meetings, if the speaker has exceeded the time due him according to his status, he is ―talked down‖. The older men start talking to each other getting louder and louder until the speaker is drowned out. Occasionally this happens if nobody agrees with the speaker. Even then, normally he has a fair hearing and only gets ―talked down ‖ when he starts to reiterate what he has already said.

17.4 Grammar

In this lesson, we discuss the postpredicate position in the sentence. In Kuna, information which is to be highlighted or which is to be made more clear, is placed at the end of a sentence. Thus, a sentence can comprise either a simple sentence or a simple sentence followed by a postpredicate element. Any one element of a given sentence may appear in this position. The postpredicate element is usually separated from the main part of the sentence by a semi-colon in writing; in speaking, there is a slight pause before it. This element is said with a different intonation pattern than the pattern used in the main sentence.

17.4.1 Uses of postpredicate position Ex. 4

The postpredicate position is used for highlighting or emphasis, for redistribution of information in order to avoid information overload, or for clarifying. 17.4.1.1 Highlighting or emphasis Information which the speaker feels needs further emphasis or highlighting may be placed in the postpredicate position. For example, we will examine the following sentence. Example Machi nakwal chule amine, mutik. ‗The boy is going to hunt paca upriver tonight.‘ In English and Spanish, the speaker may emphasize one element of a sentence by putting a heavy stress on the word to be emphasized as it is spoken. In Kuna, emphasis may be placed on any of the words in the sentence by placing that word after the predicate. In the example, the word mutik ‗tonight‘ is emphasized.

17.4.1.2 Information overload

Kuna places a limit on the number of elements that can be placed in one sentence, including the number of adjectives or adverbs modifying a given element. An item of information which exceeds the limit of pieces of information permitted in a Kuna sentence, i.e., the information overload, may be placed in the postpredicate position. If the information overload exceeds one item, the information should be distributed between two or more sentences. A chronic error made by people learning to speak Kuna is that of trying to place all the information relative to a situation into one sentence. A similar situation arises in English and Spanish when a speaker strings many clauses, adjectives, or adverbs together without pausing or changing emphasis. In either case, the listener becomes confused and does not understand the sentence. 1 Element overload In general, Kuna is limited to three or four elements in a single sentence. The essential information is put in the simple sentence and the most important item of the secondary information is put in the postpredicate position. 17.4 Grammar 231 Examine the following example. The English sentence contains five items of information which are usually too many for a simple sentence in Kuna. One item may be put in the postpredicate position or two sentences may be used. Example 1 2 3 4 5 The boy is going to give the cloth to the woman tonight. The essential information, that is the basic elements ―the boy is going to give the cloth‖, should be placed in the simple sentence. The speaker must choose the item of more importance to him from the two remaining items ―tonight‖ and ―to the woman‖. The more important item is placed in the postpredicate position, the other item is placed in the simple sentence. Following are two examples of how the sample English sentence could be rendered in Kuna. Example 1 4 3 2 5 Machi omega mol ukne; mutik . The boy to the woman cloth is going to give tonight Example 5 1 3 2 4 Mutik machi mol ukne; omega. tonight the boy cloth is going to give to the woman 2 Modifier overload104 In most cases in Kuna, only one modifier of a noun or verb may be used in the simple sentence. Two adjectives or adverbs used to modify a single element are treated as modifier overload and one of them is placed in the postpredicate position. Examples A big black canoe arrived.

1. Ul tummad noni; ul chichidi. ‗A big canoe arrived; a black canoe.‘

2. Ul chichid noni; ul tummad. ‗A black canoe arrived; a big canoe.‘

17.4.1.3 Clarifying The postpredicate position may be used to clarify the statement in the simple sentence. Clarification is achieved by stating additional information which will help to avoid ambiguity, an afterthought, or additional information after the speaker has hesitated. 1 Avoiding ambiguity Sometimes a speaker, in the process of saying a sentence, will realize that his meaning has been obscure, and he will add a word following the predicate to avoid ambiguity or to clarify the intended meaning. Example An ul pei; ul kinnigwad. ‗I want the canoe; the red canoe.‘ 2 Afterthought Occasionally, a speaker will add information in this position as an afterthought. Such a thought is sometimes added to forestall an expected objection by the listener, by clarifying the intended meaning. Example Kujal, an pe pennuko ... chedo, itos. ‗Later I will pay you back; ... pause ... this afternoon , you understand.‘ 104 See 9.4.4.3.