Chapter 1
General Introduction
This chapter serves as a general introduction to the grammar of Muna that follows in the subsequent chapters. In 1.1 I give a brief sketch of Muna, the
island and the people. The information presented there is almost completely culled from the few written sources that exist about Muna and is not based on
independent research. The most important of these sources are Bouman 1933, Couvreur 1935 and Vonk 1937. 1.2 discusses aspects of the language such as
previous studies, dialects, language boundaries and the place of Muna within the Austronesian language family. Finally, 1.3 provides some background
information on the methodology of the fieldwork underlying this grammar and also discusses the theoretical stance of this grammar.
1.1. Muna: the island, the people
1.1.1. Location
Muna is one of the bigger islands located off the southeast coast of the crab-shaped island of Sulawesi, Indonesia see map 1. To the east of Muna
lies the better-known island of Buton sometimes spelled Butung following the Bugis pronunciation, separated from Muna by the rather narrow Buton
Strait. To the west lies the mountainous island of Kabaena. Between the northwest coast of Muna and the mainland of Sulawesi a large number of small
islands are found, the Tiworo archipelago. From north to south the largest distance on Muna is approximately 110 km, while the biggest east-west distance
is roughly 60 km. Concerning the name given to this island, older sources and maps before the
twentieth century generally use the name Pangasane, Pangesana or Pantjana. The origin and meaning of this name are unknown to me, but Pancana is also
found as the name of a village in central Buton. In a note Müller 1839-44:89 mentions that on French maps the name Mounan is found. Muna is certainly
an exonym, the endonym being Wuna. In the language spoken on the island this word is used for the island witeno Wuna, for the people miendo Wuna
and for the language wamba Wuna. The word wuna means flower, and according to a local legend the name was given to this coral island soon after the
first inhabitants arrived, namely, the crew of one of Sawerigadings ships that ran aground on the coral. Sawerigading was the legendary prince of Luwu
2 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE
in South Sulawesi. They discovered a stone that had flowers growing on it kontu kowuna. This natural wonder led to the name Wuna. It is believed on
Muna that the Dutch corrupted this word to Muna. Hence the name Muna came to be the name for the island in MalayIndonesian. I have not found any opposition on
Muna to the use of Muna as an exonym. Some other sources, however, do use the name Wuna, for instance Yatim 1981.
1.1.2. Ecology
Geologically Muna is a low-lying coral island reef limestone. The area just south and west of the capital Raha located on the northeast coast is hilly
highest hill over 240 m but in the far south some hills are higher than 400 m. Especially in the south of the island the surface is very rocky, with only a
thin layer of top soil in holes and gaps between the rocks. In certain hilly areas the island shows several layers of terrace-shaped
coral formations, suggesting a gradual rise of the island over the centuries Elbert 1911:145; Van Vuuren 1920:365-366. As a result of the porous soil,
there are a number of caves in these hills. In caves about 10 km from Raha Liangkobori and Metanduno prehistoric cave drawings can be seen: hunting
scenes, animals, boats and other symbols Kosasih 1983, 1984. The northern and eastern parts of Muna are flat. The coral is here covered with a layer of
alluvial clay. In the south and in the east the coast rises straight up from the sea, but in
the north and the west mangrove forests of varying width form the transition between land and sea. In the coastal area off Loghia a large number of small
inlets and rocky islands for example Pulau Lima are to be found. North of Loghia the shore is low and flat, consisting of sand and mud. During low tide
large areas fall dry kaghotia, as wide as 1 km. Coral reefs line the south and west coast of Muna, but the Buton Strait is relatively free from coral
Verstappen 1957. Along the west coast a number of peat swamps fringe the shore line.
As a result of the rocky coral underground there are relatively few rivers on Muna. Only in those areas where there is sufficient earth and clay are a number
of streams found, most of which are unsuitable for navigation. Some rivers in the north and west can be used by small vessels, such as the Lambiko and the
Wasolangka Rivers. Since the population was primarily located in the dry and hilly western area, water shortage was and to some extent still is a major
problem on Muna. In these drier areas one is often dependent on rain water, and in times of drought on water tapped from banana trees and bamboo stalks. A
number of springs in these dry areas are of great worth, as they can provide whole areas with water for example Matakidi for Lawa and Jompi for Raha.
As for flora, parts of Muna are still covered with forest, but most of the island has been cultivated. Parts are also overgrown with elephant grass. Of
the forests, special mention needs to be made of the teakwood Tectona grandis forests. Shortly after 1910, when the Dutch started to administer this area
directly, the exploitation of these teakwood forests was begun, first by the colonial government Dienst van het Boschwezen, later also by a private
enterprise Vejahoma. Currently Muna makes an important contribution to the national export of teakwood and fortunately there is also attention paid to the
environmental aspects of this exploitation. Reforestation and the allocation of protected areas are evidence of this. Brascamp 1918 offers an interesting
account of the discovery of these forests. Rattan and certain orchid species are also found.
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3
Fauna on Muna are limited in variety compared with mainland Sulawesi. The only endemic bigger mammals are one monkey species macaca, deer and wild
swine. Especially the latter occur in large numbers, causing much damage to crops. Horses and buffaloes were probably introduced from elsewhere. The
animals unique to Sulawesi anoa and babi rusa do not live on Muna. The cuscus is the only marsupial. Snakes are common, but rarely poisonous. A rare
freshwater snake was discovered not long ago near Raha Iskander 1979. Crocodiles are now rare on Muna. Birds are found in large numbers and in many
varieties: herons, storks, hawks, several dove species, cockatoos and parakeets. The Buton Strait between Muna and Buton is full of fish and provides
good fishing water for the coastal population.
1.1.3. Demography
