Chapter 9
The Sentence
In this chapter I will deal with sentences, structures that involve more than one simple clause. Traditionally a basic distinction is made between
coordination and subordination. It seems that such a distinction is difficult to maintain for Muna, since there is only one clause type that is formally
marked as dependent, namely relative clauses. No other complex structures make use of formal means such as word order or special verb forms to indicate
subordination. A difference that is made, however, is the distinction between clauses that are juxtaposed no conjunction, no intonation break and clauses
that are conjoined. On the basis of the conjunctions used, conjoined clauses can be further subdivided into, for example, contrastive, conditional and
temporal conjoined clauses. These three linking types subordination, juxtaposition and conjoining will
be discussed in turn in 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 - 9.19. In 9.20 direct and indirect speech are discussed. The chapter ends with sections on the suffix -mo in
narrative discourse 9.21 and the clitic -a 9.22.
9.1. Subordination: relative clauses
Relative clauses are formally marked as subordinate either by a special verb form a participle or by a nominalization. Semantically, all relative clauses
narrow down the possible range of referents of the domain noun the antecedent. Within the noun phrase they have an attributive function. Non-
restrictive relative clauses do not seem to occur in Muna. In Van den Berg-Klingeman 1987 an analysis of relative clause formation is
given with particular reference to the function of the relativized NP in the relative clause. This section draws heavily on examples and conclusions reached
there. As a general introduction it may be noted that Muna does not make use of
relative pronouns or relative markers in the formation of relative clauses. A useful division which can be made is that between headed and headless or free
relative clauses.
9.1.1. Marked by active participles
When the relativized NP is the subject of the dependent clause, the active participle form of the verb is used. Plain active participles have the
232 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE
following form see 4.9: a-class: um-form--no
ae-class: me--no ao-class: mo--no
Relative clauses normally follow the head noun: 1 do-bhalo mie-hi niho r[um]ato-no ini
3pR-answer person-PLUR just arrive-A.PART this the people who had just arrived answered
2 garaahano ta-do-wora-mo kontu ko-wuna-no
SURPR JUST-3pR-see-PF stone HAVE-flower-A.PART and then they suddenly saw a stone that had flowers on it
3 moghane me-langke-no maitu ne-pongko manu
man -tall-A.PART that 3sR-kill chicken that tall man has killed a chicken
4 ana-no mo-saki-no naando ne-ndo-ndole
child-his -sick-A.PART be 3sR-RED-lie his sick child was still lying down
5 tei ka-tofa mo-meme-no ini welo embere
IMP-put NOM-wash -wet-A.PART this in bucket put this wet laundry in the bucket
As illustrated in 8.5.3 the negator with participles is pata. The realisirrealis distinction is neutralized for the participles. To indicate
futurity one of the main functions of the irrealis the preposition so 6.2.2 is used. When the two co-occur, so precedes pata:
6 ae-faraluu dahu so me-dhaga-ni-no lambu
1sR-need dog FUT -guard-TR-A.PART house I need a dog that will guard the house
7 lahae so me-mpau-no da-dh[um]umpa-e we wite
who FUT -sleepy-A.PART 3pI-push-him loc earth whoever gets sleepy will be pushed to the ground
8 no-foroghu te pata ko-gola-no
3sR-drink tea NEG HAVE-sugar-A.PART he drank tea without sugar
9 mie so pata l[um]ulusu-no tabea da-s[um]uli
person FUT NEG pass-A.PART unless 3pI-return people who will not pass the exam must go home
In certain examples the final suffix -no of the active participle may optionally be left out see 5.9.2. This is especially the case with the verb
mai-ghoo come from. The suffix -no can always be added, however:
9 THE SENTENCE 233
10 naando-mo bhirita mai-ghoo ne pomarinta
be-PF news come-IO-A.PART loc government there was news from the government
11 giu pata s[um]aha pa na-ti-perapi
kind NEG legal-A.PART FUT.not 3sI-ACC-enjoy something that is illegal will not be enjoyed
When the active participle is suffixed with a direct object pronominal suffix -kanau, -ko, -e and so on, see 4.8.1, this suffix replaces -no:
12 naando-mo fato-ghonu sikola bhasi-kanau
be-PF four-CLAS school call-me-A.PART there were four schools that called me
13 no-bisara-mo kuea [m]angkafi-e maitu
3sR-speak-PF k.o.bird follow-him-A.PART that then the kuea-bird that followed him said...
When numeral verbs are used attributively, the active participle form is also frequently used see also 5.7.2:
14 no-feena-mo kalambe-hi pi-pitu-no
he asked the seven girls 3sR-ask-PF girl-PLUR RED-seven-A.PART
15 kapitalao ru-dua-no de-ere-ere do-po-kundo
sea.officer RED-two-A.PART 3pR-RED-stand 3pR-REC-back the two sea officers were standing back to back
16 dhaga-ni nea-no bhasitie ompulu rua-fulu-no
IMP-watch-TR name-POS family ten two-ten-A.PART watch over the name of your extended family
When there is more than one verb in the relativized clause, all of them are in the participle form; so and pata, if present, can occur only once:
17 de-faraluu mie so [m]indalo-no me-angkafi-no pendidikan guru
3pR-need person FUT wish-A.PART -follow-A.PART education teacher they need people who wish to follow teacher training
18 ae-po-ghawa-ghoo anahi k[um]a-mpuu-mpuu-no poguru-no
1sR-REC-get-IO child KA-RED-serious-A.PART learn-A.PART I met a child who was seriously studying
Occasionally a relative clause precedes its head. This is not very common, and in most cases a quantifier is part of the domain noun see also 5.7.6. That,
however, is not a condition:
19 eano l[um]iu-no manu-manu ne-salo tulumi
every pass-A.PART bird 3sR-ask help every bird that passed he asked for help
20 hadae-ingke naando [m]ande-no mie-hi welo liwu ini
maybe-probably be know-A.PART person-PLUR in village this probably there are wise people in this village
234 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE
The active participle is also used when the subject of the relative clause functions as a dependent possessed NP within the main clause. The head noun
may keep or lose the possessive linker -no.
21 ampa-mo kaawu kampufu-ndo mo-de-dea-no wangka-no
merely-PF only youngest-their -RED-red-A.PART tooth-his it was only their youngest child whose teeth were red
22 na-n[um]aando hadhi ko-bhili-no fotu-no
3sI-be haji HAVE-scar-A.PART head-his there will be a haji whose head is scarred
9.1.2. Marked by passive participles
