246 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE
116 ka-bhala-no maka soso-no kenta topa no-fumaa-e-mo dahu NOM-big-POS EMPH regret-his fish dry 3sR-eat-it-PF dog
how sorry he was his dried fish had been eaten by the dog 117 ka-bhela-no lalo-no o mie da-s[um]umbele-e kaasi
NOM-wounded-POS heart-POS ART person 3sI-slaughter-her pity how sad the people were they were going to slaughter her, poor thing
d. Others, in which the semantic relationship between the head noun and the juxtaposed clause varies, although some sort of dependency is involved:
118 no-ala-mo dawu-no de-pansa he took his share of the
3sR-take-PF part-his 3sR-fish fishing
119 guru-mu ome-afa? guru-ku a-ngadhi teacher-your 2sR-do.what teacher-my 1sR-recite
what does he teach you? He teaches me to recite the Quran 120 patudhu-no no-kala ini na-[m]ealai
purpose-his 3sR-go this 3sI-ask.permission the purpose of his going was to ask permission to leave
121 ne-bhasi-ane-mo sabhangka-no so bhai-no na-k[um]ala ini 3sR-call-him-PF friend-his for friend-his 3sI-go this
she called one of his friends for him to be a companion during his journey
9.3. Conjoining: introduction
In this section clausal connections will be discussed which I call conjoining, that is, the linking of two clauses by means of a conjunction and separated by
an intonational break. In some instances the conjunction is absent, but the pause in the intonation then serves to distinguish this type from
juxtaposition. Subdivisions have been made on some broad semantic groupings for example
sequence, contrast, conditional but I am fully aware that other groupings are also possible.
Then a note about conjunctions. In chapter 3 conjunctions were introduced as a separate wordclass. There are, however, certain difficulties with
conjunctions. First, there are only a few words that can only function as a conjunction. Other words that function as conjunctions are in fact nouns or
verbs. I will call those conjunctive nouns and verbs respectively. Still other conjunctions also belong to other wordclasses such as peda like, as
preposition and eano each, every quantifier. Secondly, certain conjunctions can only be used to link clauses within the
sentence for example ane if, rampahano because, whereas others can also, or preferably do, link sentences and can thus initiate a new sentence for
example dadihanomo so, therefore; tangkanomo in short. It might be argued that words such as the latter are in fact adverbs, but since their function is
clearly to connect clauses and sentences I prefer to call them conjunctions. I suggest a division is necessary between dependent and free conjunctions, the
latter having the extra property of the ability to connect sentences as well as clauses.
9 THE SENTENCE 247
The remainder of this section on conjoined clauses is built up as follows. After a discussion of conjoining without conjunctions 9.4 follows a fairly
detailed description of different types of conjoining based on their meaning and arranged by conjunction or affix 9.5 - 9.19.
9.4. Conjoining without conjunction
When two clauses are conjoined without overt conjunction, the semantic relationship shows a considerable variety contrast, reason, clarification and
so on. Usually the two clauses show some sort of balanced structure, or, in the case of clarification, the second clause is a partial repetition of the
first. In balanced structures, parts of the second clause may be gapped, but the conditions for and the extent of gapping have not been investigated in
detail. Finally, it should be mentioned that it is not always easy to decide whether
clauses that look like conjoining without conjunctions are in fact two different sentences. In other words, whether a slight pause is a comma or a
full stop. In the following examples I assume the pause signals a break between clauses:
122 a-bhiku-a-bhiku ne-rabu kadada, a-laga-a-laga ne-tumbu kahitela RED-ART-snail 3sR-make vegetables RED-ART-ant 3sR-pound maize
Snail cooked the vegetables, Ant pounded the maize 123 sigaa no-wolo no-ala, sigaa dua miina
sometimes 3sR-finish 3sR-popular sometimes also not sometimes it got sold out, sometimes it did not
124 garaa no-ghawa-mo dhakasumu-no, no-ghawa-e we panda-no lambu SURPR 3sR-get-PF flying.jacket-her 3sR-get-it loc bottom-POS house
then she found her flying jacket; she found it under the house In the following examples temporal sequence is marked without conjunctions.
Notice, however, that the perfective suffix -mo is absent in the first clause but present in the second see 9.21:
125 no-fetingke pogau-no dahu, no-futaa-mo katogha 3sR-hear speech-POS dog 3sR-laugh-PF crow
when he heard the speech of the dog, the crow laughed 126 garaa no-rato we kaghotia maitu, no-wora-da-mo
SURPR 3sR-arrive loc beach that 3sR-see-them-PF sa-robhi-robhine-hi
ONLY-RED-woman-PLUR when he arrived on the beach, he saw them, only women
The temporal adverb participle? bhaa-bhaano at first, for the first time occurs in such temporal clauses with the meaning when first. The verb in the
second clause is not marked by -mo:
248 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE
127 bhaa-bhaano a-kala we Raha, ao-tehi a-wora oto RED-first 1sR-go loc Raha 1sR-afraid 1sR-see car
when I first went to Raha, I was afraid when I saw cars 128 bhaa-bhaano ta-po-ghawa we Jakarta, miina a-t[um]anda-i-e dua
RED-first 1eR-REC-get loc Jakarta not 1sI-remember-TR-him also when we ex first met in Jakarta, I did not remember him
Temporal sequence can also refer to a point in the future. In that case Muna does not make a distinction between a temporal and a conditional clause. The
first clause may be introduced by ane if, but need not be:
129 ane na-r[um]ato sabhangka-ku, fo-rato-kanau if 3sI-arrive friend-my IMP-CAUS-arrive-me
when my friend comes, please tell me 130 ae-late-mo dua ne ini itu na-[m]ongko-kanau-mo dua idha-ku
1sI-live-PF also loc this that 3sI-kill-me-PF also father-my if I stay to live here, my father will kill me also
131 da-mate da-si-mate-ha, da-d[um]adi da-si-dadi-ha 1pI-die 1pI-SI-die-HA 1pI-live 1pI-SI-live-HA
if we die, we will die together; if we live, we will live together
9.5. Alternative
