Clausal modifications 195 The sentence 231

viii CONTENTS

6.3. Complex prepositions

146

7. The clause 148

7.1. Intransitive clauses

148 7.1.1. Bare intransitive clauses 149

7.1.2. Unmarked order: VS

150 7.1.3. SV order: syntactic factors 151

7.1.4. SV order: pragmatic factors

153 7.2. Existential clauses 158

7.2.1. Existential clauses with naando

159 7.2.2. Existential clauses with bhe 160

7.3. Transitive clauses

161 7.3.1. Unmarked order: SVO 162

7.3.2. Zero objects

163 7.3.3. Object agreement 164

7.3.4. Object focus

165 7.4. Experiential clauses 169

7.5. Copular clauses

169 7.6. Equative clauses 170

7.7. Exclamatory clauses

172 7.8. Fronting 174

7.9. Indirect object extensions

175 7.9.1. Full indirect objects 175

7.9.2. Oblique indirect objects

177 7.9.3. IO pronominal suffix 179

7.9.4. Preverbal IO and DO

180 7.10. Temporal, locative and manner periphery 181 7.10.1. Temporal periphery 182

7.10.2. Locative periphery

184 7.10.3. Manner periphery 185 7.10.4. Combination of peripheries 187 7.11. Adverbs 187 7.11.1. Adjuncts 187

7.11.2. Disjuncts

189 7.12. Other peripheral elements 190 7.12.1. Vocatives 190

7.12.2. Interjections

191 7.12.3. Ideophones 194

8. Clausal modifications 195

8.1. Transitivizing

195 8.2. Causatives 197

8.2.1. Factitives

198 8.2.2. Causatives on dynamic intransitive bases 198

8.2.3. Causatives on transitive bases

199 8.2.4. Locutional causatives 201

8.2.5. Combinations of causatives

202 8.3. Detransitivizing 203

8.4. Reciprocals

206 8.5. Negation 207 8.5.1. The negator miina 207

8.5.2. The negators pa, pae, paise

209 8.5.3. The negators pata, tapa 211 CONTENTS ix

8.5.4. The negator suano

212 8.5.5. Other negators 212

8.6. The interrogative mode

213 8.6.1. Yes-no questions 213

8.6.2. Content questions

215 8.6.3. The question verb afa 221

8.6.4. Questions introduced by soo-mo

223 8.6.5. Other question words 223

8.6.6. Indirect questions

223 8.6.7. Echo questions 224

8.7. The imperative mode

225 8.7.1. The imperative verb form 225

8.7.2. The use of free pronouns in imperatives

226 8.7.3. Modifying the imperative: affixes and adverbs 226

8.7.4. The prohibitive

228 8.8. The adhortative mode 229

9. The sentence 231

9.1. Subordination: relative clauses

231 9.1.1. Marked by active participles 231

9.1.2. Marked by passive participles

234 9.1.3. Nominalized relative clauses 235

9.1.4. Locative relative clauses

236 9.1.5. Free relatives 236

9.2. Juxtaposition

238 9.2.1. Types of juxtaposed clauses 239

9.2.2. Subject complementation

240 9.2.3. Object complementation 242

9.2.4. Clauses juxtaposed to NPs

244 9.3. Conjoining: introduction 246

9.4. Conjoining without conjunction

247 9.5. Alternative 248

9.6. Simultaneous

248 9.7. Temporal 249

9.7.1. Marked by affixes

250 9.7.2. Marked by dependent conjunctions 250

9.7.3. Marked by free conjunctions

254 9.8. Contrastive 254

9.9. Additive

256 9.10. Surprisive 256 9.11. Conclusive 257 9.12. Clarificatory 258 9.13. Conditional 258 9.14. Concessive 261 9.15. Reason 262 9.16. Manner 263 9.17. Purpose 264 9.18. Dubitative 265 9.19. Balanced 265 9.20. Direct and indirect speech 266 9.20.1. Direct speech 266

9.20.2. Indirect speech

267 9.21. Perfective -mo in narrative discourse 269 9.22. The clitic -a 272 x CONTENTS