Word classes Derivational morphology 275

3 WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 43 it a clitic are both phonological and grammatical. First, -a is the only element that does not affect word stress when it is present. As noted in 2.5, stress is normally on the penultimate syllable of the word and affixes are considered part of the word. The addition of -a, however, does not affect the placement of stress. In the following examples ` marks a following stressed syllable: `lima arm li`maku my arm lima`kumo my arm emphatic lima`kumoa my arm emphatic pausal Grammatically it differs from affixes in that it is not added to the word, but rather to the phrase for instance after negators. Also, its meaning as a pausal marker is markedly different from the kind of meaning derivational affixes usually have. In the illustrative sentences in this grammar, -a will simply be glossed as CL clitic. Cliticization is a phonological process whereby an independent word is phonologically attached to the preceding or following word. Two such processes occur in Muna, whereby a monosyllabic word is pre-cliticized to the following verb and loses its vowel: 1. The preposition so for in purpose clauses see 9.17: so a-k[um]ala ~ s-a-k[um]ala that I go so ae-gholi ~ s-ae-gholi that I buy 2. The negator pa not future in negative clauses see 8.5.2: pa o-l[um]imba ~ p-o-l[um]imba you will not go out pa o-[m]ondoi ~ p-o-[m]ondoi you will not be able The forms so and pa in the first column are full words. Their distribution is parallel with other prepositions Chapter 6 and negators 8.5 that do not cliticize. In the second column, however, these elements have become clitics, as they are part of the following word. This phenomenon of vowel merging is also found with the prefixes sa- and ta- see 10.2.44 and 10.2.48.

3.2. Word classes

Any systematic grammar of a language will have to define the parts of speech or word classes that are relevant for that language. We cannot work on the assumption that the traditional division into parts of speech is universal; a system has to be set up which is based on the language under investigation. It turns out, for example, that the category adjective cannot be maintained for Muna, as there is no independent criterion by which supposed adjectives can be satisfactorily defined apart from verbs. Word classes are distinguished on two bases: inflectionalderivational possibilities and syntactic properties. I distinguish between declinable and nondeclinable words, and then arrive at morphological classes dividing the declinable words into noun, verb, numeral and pronoun. Syntactic criteria such as substitution, expansion and function divide the nondeclinable words into several classes. 44 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE For Muna I propose the following ten word classes, of which several will have subdivisions: 1. Noun 2. Verb 3. Pronoun 4. Numeral 5. Quantifier 6. Adverb 7. Preposition 8. Conjunction 9. Particle 10. Interjection There is a primary division between noun and verb on the one hand and all the other word classes on the other hand. Noun and verb are open classes comprising several thousands of members and continually expanding because of borrowing. The other word classes are all closed classes, the members of which can be listed. Also, nouns and verbs have a wide array of derivational possibilities, whereas derivation is impossible for many of the others quantifier, adverb, preposition, conjunction, particle and interjection or very limited pronoun and numeral. The differences can be shown in the following chart: openclosed derivational possibilities noun open many verb open many pronoun closed few numeral closed few quantifier closed none adverb closed none preposition closed none conjunction closed none particle closed none interjection closed none There is an element of arbitrariness in this classification with respect to the status of class and subclass. Pronouns could also have been considered a subclass of nouns because of their syntactic function, while negators now under adverbs could have been treated as a separate class, as is done by Silzer for Ambai Silzer 1984.

3.3. Individual discussion of word classes