Forms Locative usage Demonstrative pronoun

5 THE NOMINAL PHRASE 89 67 ka-tomba-tomba kaen-tei-ha ghoti a small rice basket a small DIM-RED-basket NOM-put-LOC rice basket in which rice is kept f. in many other fixed phrases which can be analysed as a kind of compound, although there is no formal marking see 10.4: 68 a. gola ghai mixture of brown sugar and sugar coconut grated coconut b. mina gasi kerosene oil gas 69 a. dhambu sera k.o. cashew nut b. adhara bholo black horse c. manu kariri hen with white and red feathers d. kalei susu k.o. small banana

5.5. Demonstrative pronoun

5.5.1. Forms

There are six basic demonstrative pronouns in Muna, which occur in two sets, one with and one without initial a-. These two sets are as follows: 1 aini ini 2 aitu itu 3 near amaitu maitu 3 far:neutral awatu watu 3 far:high atatu tatu 3 audible anagha nagha On the difference between the two sets, see 5.5.5. In addition to these basic sets various combinations are possible, such as amaitu-ini. These will be discussed in 5.5.7. Minor forms are the dialectal asotu and the combination awagha-itu. All demonstrative pronouns can be used to refer to the location in space of a given entity. In addition, several demonstrative pronouns can also refer to location in time and location in discourse. I will call this the locative, the temporal and the anaphoric usage of demonstratives.

5.5.2. Locative usage

The first person demonstrative aini is used for whatever is near the speaker, that is, for what is within his reach. Aitu, the second person demonstrative, refers to an entity that is closer to the hearer than it is to the speaker, but not necessarily as close as aini is to the speaker. Aitu can also be used for something near the speaker when aini is already in use not this one, but that one, when both objects are at the same distance. When the entity referred to is about the same distance away from both speaker and 90 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE hearer, several options are open. The third person amaitu typically refers to an object that is not far away, especially when it is contrasted with awatu, which is further away. Obviously, far away is a relative term and much depends on the perspective of the speaker. In any case, awatu seems to be the most neutral form in the third person series. It contrasts with atatu in that atatu has an extra semantic component of height from the point of view of the speaker which is lacking in awatu. Informants would usually say that atatu refers to a high location and awatu to a low location, but from conversations and texts it is evident that awatu is in fact the neutral form, which can even be used for relatively high points. Only in opposition to atatu does it mean low or level. In certain contexts atatu seems to mean far away or further away in opposition to awatu, rather than higher than. Anagha, finally, is used for an object that cannot be seen by either speaker or hearer, but is audible. A crying child or a barking dog that is not visible can be referred to by means of the demonstrative anagha. The primary usage of anagha, however, is anaphoric see 5.5.4. In the glosses and in the translation no attempt is made to reflect these distinctions: this is the equivalent of aini, that of all the other demonstratives. In addition to these demonstratives in standard Muna, there is also a dialectal demonstrative asotu. Its meaning is probably equivalent to awatu. Its use, however, is limited to certain villages in the kecamatan Katobu and it is considered substandard by Muna speakers from other areas and even from Katobu itself. All demonstrative pronouns can function as the head of an NP or as a modifying attribute. Examples of this locative usage: 70 ala-mo aini hintu YOU take this IMP-take-PF this you 71 pena aini miina nae-taa this pen is not good pen this not 3sI-good 72 no-ko-bhake-mo ghai aitu that coconut tree has borne 3sR-HAVE-fruit-PF coconut that fruit 73 manu-manu amaitu o tomi that bird is a sparrow bird that ART sparrow 74 awatu lambu-ku that is my house that house-my 75 atatu kalei-mu that is your banana tree that banana-your 76 ane a-t[um]ogho sau awatu if I fell that tree if 1sI-fell tree that 77 ...na-t[um]aburi bhe sau atatu it will press down that tree 3sI-press with tree that 78 dahu anagha dahu-ku that dog the one you hear is dog that dog-my mine 5 THE NOMINAL PHRASE 91

5.5.3. Temporal usage