Causatives on transitive bases

8 CLAUSAL MODIFICATIONS 199 locutional causative. Only in a few cases have I tried to show these ranges of meaning in the translation. a-futaa laugh ae-fo-futaa let laugh, make laugh a-suli return, go home ae-fo-suli return tr, give back, bring back ao-lodo sleep ae-fo-lodo make sleep, put to bed ae-ngkora sit ae-fo-ngkora make sit, put down In this case the causee is also expressed as a direct object, which may trigger the definiteness shift. Examples in clauses: 23 ae-fo-suli kantalea I return the lamp 1sR-CAUS-return lamp 24 miina da-[m]o-sampu-e ne hale they did not put her down on not 3pI-CAUS-go.down-her loc floor the floor 25 a-[m]o-wula-ko, maka wula 1sI-CAUS-open.eyes-you then IMP-open.eyes if I order you to open your eyes, then open your eyes 26 miina nao-mpona, do-fo-kawi-da-mo not 3sR-long 3pR-CAUS-marry-them-PF not long afterwards, they were married As is the case with underived transitive verbs, an indirect object pronominal suffix may be added to these causative derivations, indicating typical IO functions: 27 ae-fo-suli-angko se-riwu I return rp 1,000 to you 1sR-CAUS-return-you one-thousand 28 ne-fo-ngkora-ane se-piri she put a plate before him 3sR-CAUS-sit-him one-plate for his benefit As was demonstrated in 7.9.3, the indirect object pronominal suffixes also serve to mark a direct object pronoun followed by a full indirect object. This is glossed IOhim, IOyou and so on. In such cases the definiteness shift is triggered: 29 a-fo-lodo-angko tula-tula I send you to sleep by means 1sR-CAUS-sleep-IOyou story of a story

8.2.3. Causatives on transitive bases

When a causative verb is formed on the basis of a transitive verb, the prefix fo- is used again, and the derived verb belongs to the ae-class: a-fumaa eat ae-fo-fumaa feed ae-ada borrow ae-fo-ada lend ae-ala take ae-fo-ala cause to take ae-buri write ae-fo-buri cause to write 200 A GRAMMAR OF THE MUNA LANGUAGE In addition to the terms causer and causee I would like to introduce another term, namely causand, for the direct object of the underived verb in a causative construction. In the sentence John had Mary write a letter, John is the causer, Mary the causee and letter the causand. When the causee and the causand are both full nouns, the causee is expressed as an indirect object, by adding the suffix -ghoo to the verb. The causee follows the verb immediately, and the causand often receives the article o: 30 ae-fo-fumaa-ghoo dahu o ghoti I feed rice to the dog 1sR-CAUS-eat-IO dog ART rice 31 a-fo-ada-ghoo isa-ku se-riwu 1sR-CAUS-borrow-IO older.sibling-my one-thousand I lend rp 1,000 to my brother It is more usual to find these constructions with object agreement, that is, the causee is expressed in a pronominal suffix and the full causee NP is put in clause-final position: 32 a-fo-fumaa-ane ghoti o dahu I feed rice to the dog 1sR-CAUS-eat rice ART dog 33 a-fo-ada-ane se-riwu isa-ku 1sR-CAUS-borrow one-thousand older.sibling-my I lend rp 1,000 to my brother The causee in this causative construction can either be expressed by a direct or by an indirect object pronominal suffix: 34 a. a-fo-fumaa-angko kalei I feed you a banana 1sR-CAUS-eat-you banana b. a-fo-fumaa-ko kalei I feed you a banana 1sR-CAUS-eat-you banana 35 a. a-fo-ala-ane sau I cause him to get wood 1sR-CAUS-get-him wood b. a-fo-ala-e sau I cause him to get wood 1sR-CAUS-get-him wood It is not clear whether the difference between these syntactic realizations corresponds with a difference in meaning. The possibility of expressing the causee as a direct object only exists when the causand is a full NP or not present at all. When the causand is a pronominal suffix, the causee must be an indirect object, since there cannot be two direct object pronominal suffixes on one verb: 36 a. a-fo-fumaa-angko-e I feed it to you 1sR-CAUS-eat-you-it b. a-fo-fumaa-ko-e Notice that a definite causee triggers the definiteness shift, whether it is syntactically a direct or an indirect object, as in 34 and 35. The latter 8 CLAUSAL MODIFICATIONS 201 is surprising, since definite indirect objects do not trigger the definiteness shift in basic, underived constructions.

8.2.4. Locutional causatives